Investigative Interviewing
From Wikipedia (quit smirking, this is a good overview)
Investigative interviewing is a non-coercive method for questioning victims, witnesses and suspects of crimes.[1]Generally, investigative interviewing “involves eliciting a detailed and accurate account of an event or situation from a person to assist decision-making”.[2] This interviewing technique is ethical and research based, and it stimulates safe and effective gathering of evidence. The goal of an investigative interview is to obtain accurate, reliable and actionable information. The method aims at maximizing the likelihood of obtaining relevant information and minimize the risks of contaminating evidence obtained in police questioning. The method has been described as a tool for mitigating the use of torture, coercion and psychological manipulation, and for averting forced confessions and errors of justice leading to wrongful convictions and miscarriages of justice.[3]
The term investigative interviewing was introduced in the UK in the early 1990s to represent a shift in police interviewing away from a confession-oriented approach and towards evidence gathering. Traditionally, the main aim of an interrogation was to obtain a confession from a suspect in order to secure a conviction. Thus, investigative interviewing contrasts pervasive interrogations techniques aimed at making the suspect break down and confess.[4] The stark difference between these two approaches to police interviewing has led some authors to argue that the term “interrogation” should be scrapped altogether as it is inherently coercive and aimed at obtaining a confession.[5]
Much of the scientific base of investigative interviewing stems from social psychology and cognitive psychology, including studies of human memory. The method aims at mitigating the effects of inherent human fallacies and cognitive biases such as suggestibility, confirmation bias, priming and false memories. In order to conduct a successful interview the interviewer needs to be able to (1) create good rapport with the interviewee, (2) describe the purpose of the interview, (3) ask open-ended questions, and (4) be willing to explore alternative hypotheses.[6] Before any probing questions are asked, the interviewees are encouraged to give their free, uninterrupted account.
In the interim report dated 5 August 2016 to the UN General Assembly of the special rapporteur on torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, Juan E. Méndez, the investigative interviewing method is presented at length as an example of best practice.[7]
United Kingdom
The PEACE model (Preparation and Planning, Engage and Explain, Account, Closure and Evaluate) for police interviewing was developed in the United Kingdom in response to a number of documented forced confessions and associated wrongful convictions in the 1980’s and 90’s. Most notable were the cases associated with the conflict (the Troubles) in Northern Ireland, and terrorism, such as the Birmingham Six and Guildford Four-cases.
Norway
Investigative interviewing was adapted by the Norwegian police in 2001.[8] The acronym used for the training program for the Norwegian police is KREATIV, and is composed of phrases reflecting the values and principles the method is based upon. Professor Ray Bull and DCI David Murthwaite (Merseyside Police) were brought from the UK to Norway to help train the trainers and initiate the program. A module on how and when evidence should be disclosed during interviews with suspects was included, distinguishing it from the PEACE method.
New Zealand
The New Zealand Police published a practical tool and a compilation of literature on investigative interviewing in 2005[9]and underwent reforms to investigative interviewing both in policy and practice from 2007.[10]
References
- Milne, Rebecca and Rull, Ray (1999). Investigative Interviewing. Psychology and Practice. Chichester UK: Wiley.
- “Centre for Investigative Interviewing”. This definition has been used by the Centre for Investigative Interviewing, Australia. Retrieved 15 January 2020.
- Rachlew, Asbjørn. “From interrogating to interviewing suspects of terror: Towards a new mindset”. 14th March 2017. Penal Reform International.
- Gudjonsson, Gisli H. (2007). Investigative interviewing. Handbook of criminal investigation. Routledge. pp. 466–492. ISBN 9781843921882.
- Griffiths, Andy, and Asbjørn Rachlew (2018). From interrogation to investigative interviewing: The application of psychology. In The Psychology of Criminal Investigation. Routledge. pp. 154–178.
- Powell, Martine B., Ron P. Fisher, and Rebecca Wright (2005). Investigative Interviewing in Psychology and Law: An Empirical Perspective. The Guilford Press. pp. 11–42.
- Méndez, Juan E. “Torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. Interim report to the UN General Assembly. 5 August 2016”. digitallibrary.un.org. UN. Retrieved 15 January2020.
- Fahsing, I. A., & Rachlew, A. (2013). Investigative interviewing in the Nordic region. In International developments in investigative interviewing. Willan. pp. 65–91.
- Schollum, Mary (2005). “Investigative interviewing: The literature. Wellington, New Zealand” (PDF). Office of the Commissioner of Police. Retrieved 15 January 2020.
- Westera, Nina J., Rachel Zajac, Deirdre A. Brown (2017). Witness interviewing practices in New Zealand. In International Developments and Practices in Investigative Interviewing and Interrogation. Volume 1: Victims and witnesses. London: Routledge. pp. 123–134.
Research on Investigative Interviewing
Memory-enhancing techniques for investigative interviewing: The cognitive interview.
Fisher, Ronald P. and Geiselman, R. Edward
Springfield, IL, England: Charles C Thomas, Publisher; 1992. xi, 220 pp.
Abstract:
Despite the obvious importance of eyewitness information in criminal investigation, police receive surprisingly little instruction on how to conduct an effective interview with a cooperative eyewitness (Sanders, 1986). . . . Reflecting this lack of formal training, police often maintain a less-than-rigorous attitude toward this phase of investigation. . . . It is not surprising, therefore, that police investigators often make avoidable mistakes when conducting a friendly interview and fail to elicit potentially valuable information. The intent of this book is to provide the police interviewer (INT) or any other investigative INT with a systematic approach so that he can elicit the maximum amount of relevant information from cooperative eyewitnesses (E/Ws).
The language of this book is couched in terms of police investigations, primarily because our research has been conducted with police participants. However, since the Cognitive Interview is based on general principles of cognition, it should be useful to anyone conducting an investigative interview, whether a police detective, fire marshal, state-, defense-, or civil attorney, private investigator, etc.
The Cognitive Interview has evolved over the past several years and reflects a multidisciplinary approach. We have relied heavily on the theoretical, laboratory research in cognitive psychology (hence the name ‘Cognitive Interview’) that we and other psychologists have conducted over the past thirty years. . . . The Cognitive Interview . . . is an eclectic approach, making use of ideas found across a variety of people, research approaches and disciplines.
From interrogation to investigative interviewing: Strategic trends in police questioning.
Williamson, Thomas M.
Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, Vol 3(2), Jun, 1993. pp. 89-99.
Abstract:
Assessed whether there was evidence of change in police culture indicating a growth in professionalism in the questioning of suspects. 80 detectives from 4 London police stations completed a questionnaire concerning their views on the legislative, technological, and organizational changes they had experienced. Four ideal interrogation styles were identified from a subjective analysis of tape-recorded interrogations: (1) collusive (cooperative, helpful, aimed at securing a confession); (2) counseling (nonjudgmental, unemotional, aimed at securing evidence); (3) business-like (factual, formal, aimed at securing evidence); and (4) dominant (confrontational, emotional, aimed at securing a confession). Most detectives have moved away from questioning purely to obtain a confession, toward questioning that is more of an inquiry, examining and adding to existing evidence.
Investigative interviewing: Recent developments and some fundamental issues.
Gudjonsson, Gisli H.
International Review of Psychiatry, Vol 6(2-3), 1994. pp. 237-245.
Abstract:
Reviews some fundamental issues about the nature, methods, and consequences of investigative interviewing by police of suspects, witnesses, victims, and complainants. Recent legal developments in England have led to improved protection for suspects detained for interviewing as well as improved interviewing procedures and techniques. Emphasis is now on gathering information rather than obtaining confessions. It is argued that coercive and psychologically manipulative interviewing techniques can have negative consequences, including false confession, the undermining of public confidence in the criminal justice system, resentment and hostility among defendants, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and confessions being ruled inadmissible in court. There is a fine balance between facilitating the duties of the police to prevent and investigate crimes and answering the needs and protecting the rights of suspects and witnesses.
Learning disability and the police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984. Protection during investigate interviewing: a video-recorded false confession to double murder.
Gudjonsson, Gisli
Journal of Forensic Psychiatry, Vol 5(1), May, 1994. pp. 35-49.
Abstract:
Reports the case of an adult man with mental retardation who confessed falsely to a double murder during police interviewing under the provisions of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984. The confession was video-recorded and superficially appeared genuine and convincing. A psychological framework is provided to explain the process and mechanism that resulted in the false confession. The framework shows how emotions such as fear and shame can be misinterpreted by detectives as an indication of guilt. The case highlights the risk of a miscarriage of justice when vulnerable suspects are spoken to about a crime by police officers outside the setting of tape-recorded interviews, and the potential dangers of refusing private access to a solicitor and an appropriate adult prior to police interviews.
Towards understanding the effects of interviewer training in evaluating the cognitive interview.
Memon, Amina, et.al.
Applied Cognitive Psychology, Vol 8(7), Dec, 1994. pp. 641-659.
Abstract:
Examined the effects of cognitive interview (CI) training using experienced police officers with established interviewing styles. An armed robbery was staged, and information was elicited in witness interviews. The CI did not significantly increase correct recall but tended to produce more suppositions and errors. A qualitative analysis of interviewer behavior showed that many officers had difficulty in applying the new cognitive techniques and in avoiding the use of closed and leading questions. Results raise 2 issues: the training of experienced police officers who have received relatively little prior training in investigative interviewing, and second, the extent to which data from the laboratory data elicited in previous studies of CI can be generalized.
Interviewer behaviour in investigative interviews.
Memon, Amina, et.al.
Psychology, Crime & Law, Vol 3(2), 1996. pp. 135-155.
Abstract:
94 children (aged 8 and 9 yrs) viewed a magic show in small groups and were subsequently interviewed 2 days after the event, using either the Cognitive Interview (CI) or a Structured Interview (SI) technique (Time 1). After 12 days the children were reinterviewed (Time 2). Another group was interviewed only at Time 2. This paper examines individual differences in interviewers’ questioning style, their use of the CI/SI techniques and the way such usage relates to witness performance in an interview. It was found that where the CI techniques were used consistently and the interviewers probed extensively using open and closed questions, more correct and incorrect information was elicited. Implications for police training and future research on investigative interviewing are considered.
A field evaluation of training in three methods of witness/victim investigative interviewing.
Clifford, Brian R. and George, Richard
Psychology, Crime & Law, Vol 2(3), 1996. pp. 231-248.
Abstract:
Using serving policemen and policewomen with real-life witnesses/victims of crime, this study explored the relative merits of 3 training methods in investigative interviewing. Police personnel of 5 or more years’ experience were trained in either the enhanced Cognitive Interview technique (CI), Conversational Management (CM), or a combination of both (CI + CM). The efficacy of these 3 forms of training was compared with an untrained (control) group of police, in a before–after design. The nature of the interviewers, behaviour (number, rate and type of questions asked) and the relative amounts of relevant information elicited before and after training were examined. 28 police were randomly allocated to 1 of the 4 conditions of training. It was found that the interview-behaviour of the CI-only trained officers changed much more than any of the other trained or control groups between pre- and post-training phases. These findings offer support for the ecological validity of the CI as a powerful investigative interviewing technique in eliciting potentially relevant information and strongly imply its superiority to CM in this regard. The finding that CI + CM did not produce the best result overall is discussed.
Specialist training in investigative and evidential interviewing: Is it having any effect on the behaviour of professionals in the field?
Powell, Martine B.
Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, Vol 9(1), Apr, 2002. pp. 44-55.
Abstract:
Provides a summary of the essential elements of an investigative or evidential interview. This is followed by a review of research relating to the effectiveness of training programs for forensic interviewers and the factors that are needed to promote the use of appropriate questioning techniques. Finally, this article offers recommendations for future research and for the revision of existing training programs in forensic interviewing.
A Bu nözői Profilalkotástól a Tanúkihallgatásig: Törekvések a Mai Kriminálpszichológiában.
Translated Title: From Offender Profiling to Investigative Interviewing: New Approaches in Recent Criminal Psychology.
János, Boros
Magyar Pszichológiai Szemle, Vol 58(2), 2003. pp. 275-292.
Source Title Translation:
Hungarian Journal of Psychology
Abstract:
The past 20 years have seen such essential improvements in legal psychology that fundamentally changed our traditional thinking of way about criminal psychology. The initial approach, focused on the psychological explanation of criminal behavior, the role of expert at the court, the problem of prisoner rehabilitation, extensively and intensively increased in the said period. Especially in western countries application of psychology has gained general acceptance in each face of the justice system (investigation, interviewing, decision-making at the court, punishment enforcement), and in the process several major issues have become also highlighted such as the psychology of victims, attitude toward crime, psychological approach of crime prevention. This study deals with some theoretical questions of criminal psychology and 2 topics of the psychology of criminalistics: offender profiling and a new method of investigative interviewing, the cognitive interview. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved)
The Youth Justice and Criminal Evidence Act 1999 and the interviewing of vulnerable groups: A practitioner’s perspective.
Nield, Roger, et.al.
Legal and Criminological Psychology, Vol 8(2), Sep, 2003. pp. 223-228.
Abstract:
The purpose of this article is to discover practitioners’ appreciation of the legislative changes that the Youth Justice and Criminal Evidence Act 1999–largely implemented in 2002– will have on investigative interviewing of vulnerable groups. Police officers and social workers completed a questionnaire that asked about their perceptions of the Youth Justice and Criminal Justice Act 1999. Practitioners thought that a large number of interviewees would be eligible for the special measures allowed within the remit of the new act. It was believed that the act would result in achieving best evidence with respect to accuracy and recording of interviews and in less discrimination against vulnerable groups. However, it was also believed that implementing the act would be demanding in terms of time and money. Police officers and social workers share positive and negative views concerning the implementation and efficacy of the new legislation.
An Ultimate Understanding of Interrogations and Confessions.
Cherryman, Julie
Applied Cognitive Psychology, Vol 18(6), Sep, 2004. pp. 784-786.
Abstract:
Aimed primarily at a wide-ranging variety of practitioners working in investigative interviewing, The Psychology of Interrogations and Confessions: A Handbook (see record 2003-04147-000) is an important addition to the bookshelves of academics researching and teaching this and related topics. Police officers may, of course, be especially interested in this handbook and, although Gudjonsson cautions that this is at a policy level rather than as a training manual, police trainers will find a host of information to support their training in investigative interviewing of suspects. Separated into four sections (Interrogations and confessions; Legal and psychological aspects; British Court of Appeal cases; and Foreign cases of disputed confessions, complete with Gudjonsson’s overview of the sections) this handbook brings together the vast published work of Gudjonsson and his colleagues and provides a critique of most published work on investigative interviewing of suspects and on confessions. Overall, the reader is provided with a thorough overview of the whole topic of interrogations and confessions, with an emphasis on false confessions. Throughout the whole of the book, there is critical discussion regarding limitations of the author’s research. The underpinning psychological theory is outlined and the applied examples do indeed provide a comprehensive handbook on the topic of interrogations and confessions.
Investigative Interviewing.
Powell, Martine B., Fisher, Ronald P., Wright, Rebecca
Psychology and law: An empirical perspective. Brewer, Neil, (Ed); Williams, Kipling D., (Ed); pp. 11-42; New York, NY, US: The Guilford Press; 2005. xii, 516 pp.
Abstract:
There is strong international consensus about which interviewing skills are most responsible for eliciting extensive, accurate accounts. Two of the most critical skills are (1) the use of open-ended questions, and (2) refraining from the use of closed and/or specific leading questions. The first section of this chapter provides a brief summary of the four central areas of agreement among the protocols and provides a rationale for the importance of each element. Practical recommendations and further reading are also provided. In the second section of this chapter, we review research regarding the effectiveness of investigative interviewers in adhering to best-practice guidelines. Furthermore, we describe the elements of professional training programs that are likely to maximize the ability of investigative interviewers to adhere to these guidelines.
Towards greater professionalism: Minimizing miscarriages of justice.
Williamson, Tom
Investigative interviewing: Rights, research, regulation. Williamson, Tom, (Ed); pp. 147-166; Devon, United Kingdom: Willan Publishing; 2006. xxi, 370 pp.
Abstract:
In this chapter, the author draws on research showing the correlation between the weight of evidence in the case and the outcome of the interview with a suspect. A set of ethical principles for investigative interviewing is described, together with an introduction to the PEACE model of investigative interviewing now being taught in England and many other countries. Miscarriage of justice cases in several countries are examined and many commonly recurring contributing factors are identified, including ‘tunnel vision’. Williamson concludes by arguing for sound, scientifically based training programmes and continuous professional development pathways leading to academic qualifications and ‘licence to practice’ regulations, as essential steps in professionalizing investigative interviewing.
Will it all end in tiers? Police interviews with suspects in Britain.
Griffiths, Andy and Milne, Becky
Investigative interviewing: Rights, research, regulation. Williamson, Tom, (Ed); pp. 167-189; Devon, United Kingdom: Willan Publishing; 2006. xxi, 370 pp.
Abstract:
This chapter is based on an analysis of the performance of police officers who received training in advanced investigative interviewing. It demonstrates that the skills acquired on the course were maintained in the workplace. A model of analyzing interviews, the Griffiths Question Map, is described.
The Reid Technique of interviewing and interrogation.
Buckley, Joseph P.
Investigative interviewing: Rights, research, regulation. Williamson, Tom, (Ed); pp. 190-206; Devon, United Kingdom: Willan Publishing; 2006. xxi, 370 pp.
Abstract:
Probably the most popular interviewing and interrogation training course in the world is presented in this chapter. Joseph P. Buckley describes the programme and discusses recent developments to take account of concerns regarding some aspects of the methodology. He demonstrates that the model operates within the jurisprudence currently established by the higher courts in Canada and the USA.
A critical appraisal of modern police interrogations.
Kassin, Saul M.
Investigative interviewing: Rights, research, regulation. Williamson, Tom, (Ed); pp. 207-228; Devon, United Kingdom: Willan Publishing; 2006. xxi, 370 pp.
Abstract:
Saul M. Kassin examines contemporary interrogation practices in the USA and in particular provides a critical analysis of the Reid technique. By drawing on recent case studies, he shows that the dangers of false confessions have been underestimated.
Investigative interviewing and the detection of deception.
Frank, Mark G., et.al.
Investigative interviewing: Rights, research, regulation. Williamson, Tom, (Ed); pp. 229-255; Devon, United Kingdom: Willan Publishing; 2006. xxi, 370 pp.
Abstract:
The detection of deception is a subject that has been studied by psychologists, and this is addressed in this chapter by Mark G. Frank, John D. Yarbrough and Paul Ekman. The authors describe a model of investigative interviewing and, in particular, examine the psychology of emotion and facial micro-expressions of emotion.
Investigative interviewing: Suspects’ and victims’ rights in balance.
Roy, Robert
Investigative interviewing: Rights, research, regulation. Williamson, Tom, (Ed); pp. 292-317; Devon, United Kingdom: Willan Publishing; 2006. xxi, 370 pp.
Abstract:
This chapter is based on extensive research in Canada and Switzerland of the ethical challenges faced by investigators in trying to obtain information through questioning. A methodology based on applied ethics is used to consider how investigative interviewing can best be regulated. It considers the influence of rules and concludes that they are insufficient, as rules cannot be developed to cover every eventuality. Instead, there is a need to develop processes that improve the exercise of moral judgment by investigators. Using custodial interviewing as a case study, a set of ethical criteria is developed, including when and where deception can be used. The chapter concludes that legislation should be considered to prevent a miscarriage of justice occurring whereby the guilty in serious cases go free if society is to achieve a better balance between the rights of suspects and those of victims.
The psychological vulnerabilities of witnesses and the risk of false accusations and false confessions.
Gudjonsson, Gisli H.
Witness testimony: Psychological, investigative and evidential perspectives. Heaton-Armstrong, Anthony, (Ed); Shepherd, Eric, (Ed); Gudjonsson, Gisli, (Ed); Wolchover, David, (Ed); pp. 61-75; New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press; 2006. xlvii, 449 pp.
Abstract:
‘Investigative interviewing’ is an important form of evidence gathering. The principal objective is to obtain information that is detailed, complete, comprehensible, valid (in legal settings the words ‘safe’ and ‘reliable’ are commonly used to describe validity), and relevant to the legal issues in the case that need to be established and proved. A number of governmental and local agencies are involved in conducting investigative interviews, including the police, Customs and Excise, the military and the security services. Interviewing also occurs in other settings, such as mental health and organisational settings. However, the focus in this chapter is on investigative (police) interviews in relation to ‘vulnerable’ people. Obtaining a clear and reliable account of events from witnesses, victims and suspects is important in order to achieve a sound conviction and avoid a miscarriage of justice. Witnesses do sometimes give false or misleading evidence, even when motivated to tell the truth. Similarly, self-incriminating statements from suspects, even when false, do on occasions result in a wrongful conviction. It is often assumed that persons who suffer from mental disorder lack the capacity and motivation to give an accurate, complete and reliable account of events. This unfounded view was well highlighted during the Ashworth Inquiry, where the evidence of psychiatric patients about alleged ill-treatment and improper care was challenged by the defendants on the basis of the patients’ mental status and their inherent lack of credibility as witnesses. In this chapter the potential psychological vulnerabilities of persons with mental disorder are set out and it is argued that mental disorder on its own does not usually undermine the credibility of witnesses when interviewed by the police or when giving evidence in court. What is needed is a proper identification of mental problems and other psychological vulnerabilities and an explanation of how these factors may influence the reliability of the witness’s account to the police and evidence in court. This is what the present chapter aims to do.
Investigative interviewing: Rights, research, regulation.
Williamson, Tom, (Ed).
Devon, United Kingdom: Willan Publishing; 2006. xxi, 370 pp.
Abstract:
At a time of increased threat of terrorist violence democracies have struggled to achieve a satisfactory balance between the needs of the state and respect for human rights, and in many areas traditionally recognized rights have been under threat. Nowhere has the dilemma been more evident than in the questioning of suspects by police and security agencies. The objective of this book is to review the position of investigative interviewing in a variety of different countries, with different types of criminal justice systems, with contributions from leading authorities in the field, both academics and practitioners. A wide range of often controversial questions is addressed, including issues raised by the treatment of detainees at Guantanamo Bay; the effectiveness of ethical interviewing; investigative interviewing and human rights; the Reid model for interviewing; responses to miscarriages of justice; the role of legislation in preventing bad practice and the importance of effective regulation in promoting good practice; and the likely future of investigative interviewing. The book also makes comparisons between British and American approaches to detention without trial, and the role of confession evidence within adversarial legal systems. It develops a set of proposals to promote humane and effective methods of questioning that minimize the risks of miscarriages of justice, irrespective of jurisdiction. It will be essential reading not only for those with an interest and concern with investigative interviewing itself but in the dilemmas and the challenges facing the police and other security agencies in the twenty-first century.
Interviewing suspects of crime.
Parent Book Series:
Wiley series in the psychology of crime, policing and law
Hill, Carole and Memon, Amina.
Offenders’ memories of violent crimes. Christianson, Sven Å., (Ed); pp. 237-258; New York, NY, US: John Wiley & Sons Ltd; 2007. xvii, 380 pp.
Abstract:
In order to solve criminal investigations it is essential that police officers gather as much information and evidence as possible so that they can determine how and why the crime occurred, and who committed the crime. One of the most valuable tools used by police officers when gathering evidence in criminal investigations is the investigative interview. With regards to the investigative interviewing of suspects, the techniques used during the interview phase of an investigation have changed markedly over the last century. This chapter will review these changes in interview techniques and will focus in particular on current interviewing practices in Britain and America. The chapter will also review research examining investigator bias, a presumption that a suspect is guilty and how this can impact on the subsequent investigation.
Interrogations and confessions.
Parent Book Series:
Wiley series in the psychology of crime, policing and law
Gudjonsson, Gisli H.
Offenders’ memories of violent crimes. Christianson, Sven Å., (Ed); pp. 259-278; New York, NY, US: John Wiley & Sons Ltd; 2007. xvii, 380 pp.
Abstract:
The term ‘interrogation’ is generally used in the literature and in police practice to refer to the questioning of criminal suspects, typically involving a confrontation, whereas the term ‘interviewing’ is more commonly used in cases of witnesses and victims. Williamson (1993) has proposed the term ‘investigative interviewing’ to cover both the interviewing of witnesses and suspects. However, in this chapter the term ‘interrogation’ will be used, as the focus is specifically on the interrogation of suspects for the purpose of potential police prosecution. Here confessions are often crucial in securing a conviction. It is therefore not surprising that interrogators have traditionally focused on obtaining confessions rather than merely gathering information. In this chapter the author will discuss the nature of confessions in the area of criminal justice, review the relevant theories and empirical evidence and show how interrogation can go wrong in terms of producing false confessions.
Tackling ecological validity: Conducting observations in a police-suspect interview.
Gozna, Lynsey
Issues in Forensic Psychology, No 6, 2007. pp. 57-63.
Abstract:
Interviewing suspects is a challenging and complex endeavour but a crucial aspect of any criminal investigation. However, little research within the fields of investigative interviewing or deception has been conducted that considers the environment as the basis for increasing the effectiveness of credibility assessment and its contribution to the overall decision-making process. The interactions between interviewing officers and suspects can potentially impact on the way in which the surrounding evidence is perceived in the investigation. This paper will discuss research that has attempted to unravel the strategies utilised by suspects during an interview and provide a more ecologically valid approach to credibility assessment with the focus on the applied setting. The logistics of conducting research in the challenging setting of the police interview environment and the implications of the findings from our observational research of high volume crime suspect interviews will also be discussed.
Assessment Criteria Indicative of Deception (ACID): An integrated system of investigative interviewing and detecting deception.
Colwell, Kevin, et.al.
Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, Vol 4(3), Oct, 2007. pp. 167-180.
Abstract:
This study describes the assimilation and validation of Assessment Criteria Indicative of Deception (ACID). ACID is derived from investigative interviewing, Criteria-Based Content Analysis, Reality Monitoring, and interpersonal deception. Each component has been previously published. Thirty-eight university undergraduates entered a professors office and either stole an exam or replaced an exam that had been stolen previously. They were interviewed 1 week later with the Reality Interview, which is deliberately challenging and aims to enhance the detection of deception. Half responded honestly and completely; half distorted their responses to avoid incrimination. Incentives were provided. Honest responses were longer, more detailed, and contained more admissions of potential mistakes. Most importantly, honest respondents benefited from attempts to enhance recall, whereas these same attempts caused deceptive respondents to provide shorter, more repetitive statements. This is a promising technique; 33 of 38 cases were classified accurately. Discussion includes characteristics of deception, process of deception during an investigative interview, hypothetical interview strategies to facilitate the detection of deception, strengths and weaknesses of the study, and areas for future research.
Investigative interviewing: The role of research.
Milne, Becky, et.al.
Applying psychology to criminal justice. Carson, David, (Ed); Milne, Rebecca, (Ed); Pakes, Francis, (Ed); Shalev, Karen, (Ed); Shawyer, Andrea, (Ed); pp. 65-80; New York, NY, US: John Wiley & Sons Ltd; 2008. xiv, 314 pp.
Abstract:
Interviewing is at the heart of any police investigation and thus is the root of achieving justice in society. This is because there are two key aims underpinning any investigation and these are to (1) find out what happened, and if anything did happen (2) to discover who did what. In order to answer these two primary investigative questions investigators need to gather information and invariably the source of the information is a person (e.g. witness, victim, suspect, complainant, first officer at the scene of a crime, emergency services, experts, etc.). Thus, one of the most important tools in an investigator’s tool box is the interview. As a result, since the mid-1980s, practitioners and researchers have sought, and in some countries have substantially succeeded, in developing procedures that improve the quality of interviews of witnesses, victims and suspects of crime. These new procedures have been the outcome of the interplay between academic research and practical policing. Police interviewing in the UK has seen great advances since the 1980s. Undoubtedly, the most influential piece of legislation which forced the police service to examine its interviewing practices was the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984. This groundbreaking piece of legislation dictated that all interviews with those suspected of crime be recorded and thus for the first time allowed the mystery that was the police interview to come into the limelight and be examined in all its glory by senior police officers, academics and courts alike. This chapter aims to outline these developments regarding investigative interviewing and the role research has had within them.
Interviewing suspects.
Holmberg, Ulf and Kronkvist, Ola.
Forensic psychology. Davies, Graham M., (Ed); Hollin, Clive R., (Ed); Bull, Ray, (Ed); pp. 113-132; New York, NY, US: John Wiley & Sons Ltd; 2008. xxiii, 348 pp.
Abstract:
Obviously, one of the most important parts of a crime investigation, the interview with the suspect, may be conducted and experienced in different ways and in this chapter the authors will discuss different kinds of police interview. As an introduction, the authors start by examining the recommendations found in interrogation manuals. This throws light on the confession culture, the assumption that most suspects are liars and the emphasis upon psychologically coercive tactics. The next section describes the effects on a police officer’s behavior while interrogating and questioning a suspect according to the guidance embodied in such manuals. One possible consequence of a confession-seeking interrogation is a false confession and the impact of this, as well as other explanations as to why some people falsely confess to a crime, will be discussed in the third part. Finally, the authors take a step from interrogation to investigative interviewing and give an account of what research has found regarding interviewing suspects. In other words, what could work from a human rights perspective that could also increase a suspect’s readiness to talk (with the added hope that this might be a first step toward rehabilitation and a life without crime).
The cognitive interview: Inexperienced police officers’ perceptions of their witness/victim interviewing practices.
Dando, Coral, et.al.
Legal and Criminological Psychology, Vol 13(1), Feb, 2008. pp. 59-70.
Abstract:
Purpose: The primary objectives of the study reported here were twofold. First, to investigate less experienced frontline police officers’ perceptions of their witness interviewing practices with specific reference to their use of the ten cognitive interview components taught during initial PEACE (a mnemonic for the stages of the interview; Planning and preparation, Engage and explain, Account, Closure and Evaluation) interview training. Second, to investigate this group of officers’ practical experiences of interviewing witnesses. Method: A sample of 221 young, in-service, non-specialist police officers from five UK police forces completed a self-report questionnaire concerning their perceived witness interviewing practices. Respondents were surveyed about their use of the PEACE cognitive interview components, their practical experiences of interviewing witnesses and victims, and their views on investigative interviewing training. Results: There was a consensus among these officers that they perceived using some of the PEACE cognitive interview components more frequently and perceived some of them to be more effective than others. Conclusion: This study provides a unique insight into the perceived interviewing practices of some of the least experienced and the least trained investigative interviewers who conduct the majority of frontline witness interviews. These officers report feeling inadequately trained, under pressure and generally ill equipped to conduct a PEACE cognitive interview. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved)
Cognitive interviewing.
Dando, Coral J. and Milne, Rebecca.
Applied criminal psychology: A guide to forensic behavioral sciences. Kocsis, Richard N., (Ed); pp. 147-167; Springfield, IL, US: Charles C Thomas Publisher, Ltd.; 2009. xx, 286 pp.
Abstract:
The cognitive interview (CI) is a multidisciplinary forensic interview technique concerned exclusively with the retrieval of information from memory. It is one of the most-researched and widely acknowledged interview procedures for enhancing eyewitness memorial performance and has been described as ‘one of the most exciting developments in psychology in the last ten years’ (Memon, 2000, p. 343). Indeed, the CI has been fundamental in shaping the prevailing approach to investigative interviewing in the United Kingdom, as well as many other countries (e.g. Australia, United States, and Canada). This chapter will commence by outlining the importance of witness information to the investigation of crime, followed by a brief introduction to some of the problems associated with police interviews prior to the formation of the CI. The CI procedure will then be described and the development process will be outlined, including a review of the relevant theory and empirical research. Finally, research pertaining to police officers’ application of the procedure will be introduced.
A structured model for investigative interviewing of suspects.
van der Sleen, Jannie
Handbook of psychology of investigative interviewing: Current developments and future directions. Bull, Ray, (Ed); Valentine, Tim, (Ed); Williamson, Tom, (Ed); pp. 35-49; Wiley Blackwell; 2009. xix, 339 pp.
Abstract:
The author discusses recent psychological studies on obtaining a truthful statement when interviewing a suspect while also ensuring that the suspect does not make a (partly) false confession. The author provides a structured model for investigative interviewing of suspects. The preparation of a questioning plan, the conducting of the interview, and limitations and advantages of the model are presented. Part of a questioning plan regarding the use of a car during a burglary is appended.
Finding false confessions.
van Koppen, Peter J.
Handbook of psychology of investigative interviewing: Current developments and future directions. Bull, Ray, (Ed); Valentine, Tim, (Ed); Williamson, Tom, (Ed); pp. 53-68; Wiley Blackwell; 2009. xix, 339 pp.
Abstract:
In many cases it is hard to assess whether a confession is false or not. And that is the problem I want to discuss in this chapter: after a confession has been made, how do we identify a false one? Several approaches are possible: 1) assessing the psychological characteristics of the suspect; 2) assessing the characteristics of the (series of) interviews and circumstances of detention; 3) assessing the content of the confession. I shall conclude that in some cases, under some circumstances, a false confession can be distinguished from a true one. For that purpose, the content of the confession is more valuable than the other two approaches.
Major Crime (Investigative Powers) Act 2004: The chief examiner and coercive powers.
Maguire, Damien B.
Handbook of psychology of investigative interviewing: Current developments and future directions. Bull, Ray, (Ed); Valentine, Tim, (Ed); Williamson, Tom, (Ed); pp. 109-119; Wiley Blackwell; 2009. xix, 339 pp.
Abstract:
The topic of this chapter is the Major Crime (Investigative Powers) Act 2004, the Chief Examiner and Coercive Powers. In the course of the chapter I shall outline the circumstances in which this legislation came to be implemented, explain how the legislation operates and share my views as to what part the legal profession should play in representing witnesses in the ‘coercive powers’ examination hearing process.
The cognitive interview: Research and practice across the lifespan.
Holliday, Robyn E., et.al.
Handbook of psychology of investigative interviewing: Current developments and future directions. Bull, Ray, (Ed); Valentine, Tim, (Ed); Williamson, Tom, (Ed); pp. 137-160; Wiley Blackwell; 2009. xix, 339 pp.
Abstract:
This chapter will focus on vulnerable witnesses—children under the age of 16 years, adults aged 65 years and over, and children and adults with intellectual impairments. In such cases, it is crucial that these witnesses are interviewed as sensitively as possible so that the information that is reported is accurate and reliable. A number of factors determine the reliability of witness testimony. This chapter is concerned with one of those factors, investigative interviews. The manner in which a witness is interviewed is crucial for criminal investigations and successful prosecutions. This chapter will focus on a set of forensic interviewing techniques which have been tested extensively, namely the original Cognitive Interview (CI) protocol (Geiselman, Fisher, Firstenberg, Hutton, Sullivan, Avetissian & Prosk, 1984) and its revision (Fisher & Geiselman, 1992). First, we shall describe the original CI and the theoretical principles on which the CI techniques are grounded. This will be followed by empirical research presented chronologically, beginning with young children through to old age. We then consider the viability of CI techniques with learning disabled children and adults, and cognitively impaired older adults. We shall conclude with a discussion of the state of play in CI research and practice in the twenty-first century—promising applications of CI research with suspects (Fisher & Perez, 2007; Fisher & Castano, 2008), and progress on the development of shortened Cognitive Interviews for use with children and older adults.
Investigative interviewing and memory: How accurate are interviewers recollections of investigative interviews?
Gregory, Amy Hyman
Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, Vol 70(11-B), 2009. pp. 7246.
Abstract:
Contrary to interviewing guidelines, a considerable portion of witness interviews are not recorded. Investigators’ memory, their interview notes, and any subsequent interview reports therefore become important pieces of evidence; the accuracy of interviewers’ memory or such reports is therefore of crucial importance when interviewers testify in court regarding witness interviews. A detailed recollection of the actual exchange during such interviews and how information was elicited from the witness will allow for a better assessment of statement veracity in court. Two studies were designed to examine interviewers’ memory for a prior witness interview. Study One varied interviewer note-taking and type of subsequent interview report written by interviewers by including a sample of undergraduates and implementing a two-week delay between interview and recall. Study Two varied levels of interviewing experience in addition to report type and note-taking by comparing experienced police interviewers to a student sample. Participants interviewed a mock witness about a crime, while taking notes or not, and wrote an interview report two weeks later (Study One) or immediately after (Study Two). Interview reports were written either in a summarized format, which asked interviewers for a summary of everything that occurred during the interview, or verbatim format, which asked interviewers to record in transcript format the questions they asked and the witness’s responses. Interviews were videotaped and transcribed. Transcriptions were compared to interview reports to score for accuracy and omission of interview content. Results from both studies indicate that much interview information is lost between interview and report especially after a two-week delay. The majority of information reported by interviewers is accurate, although even interviewers who recalled information immediately after still reported a troubling amount of inaccurate information. Note-taking was found to increase accuracy and completeness of interviewer reports especially after a two week delay. Report type only influenced recall of interviewer questions. Experienced police interviewers were not any better at recalling a prior witness interview than student interviewers. Results emphasize the need to record witness interviews to allow for more accurate and complete interview reconstruction by interviewers, even if interview notes are available.
A modified cognitive interview procedure for frontline police investigators.
Dandoo, Coral, et.al.
Applied Cognitive Psychology, Vol 23(5), Jul, 2009. pp. 698-716.
Abstract:
The current investigative interviewing model for police officers in England and Wales recommends the use of the cognitive interview (CI). However, there is much to suggest that police officers do not regularly fully apply the procedure and that when they do, it is often poorly applied. Research has indicated that this is particularly the case with non-specialist police investigators who believe the CI is too cumbersome, complex and time consuming for the types of witness interviews they conduct. With this in mind the present study investigated a CI procedure that had been substantially modified in an attempt to enhance its forensic practicability while retaining the demonstrated superiority of the CI. Employing the mock witness paradigm, the modified procedure was compared to both the current CI model and a structured interview (SI). Results revealed that the modified CI was more effective than the SI, while being as effective as the current CI, despite being significantly shorter in duration and, we argue, less demanding for the interviewer. Hence, the proposed modified CI may well be an effective practical alternative for frontline investigators.
Are you talking to me? Influencing behaviour and culture in police interviews.
Beune, Karlijn, et.al.
Psychology, Crime & Law, Vol 15(7), Sep, 2009. pp. 597-617.
Abstract:
This study examines the relationship between two types of influencing behaviour in police interviews (being kind and rational persuasion) and three types of interview effectiveness, i.e. the suspects’ willingness to give a statement, their estimation of the quality of the relationship with the detective, and suspects’ admission. We expected that being kind and rational persuasion (arguments referring to logic and rationality) would have a different effect on suspects from cultures that tend to be direct and content-oriented (low-context cultures) versus cultures in which communication is more indirect and context orientated (high-context cultures). To examine this, experienced police detectives interviewed mock theft suspects from low-context (n = 25) and high-context (n = 27) cultures. As predicted, and particularly for high-context suspects, being kind in terms of rewarding and offering was positively related to the perceived quality of the relationship of the suspect, while being kind in terms of active listening behaviour was positively related to admissions. Furthermore, and as expected, there was a positive relationship between rational persuasion of the police detective and admissions for low-context suspects, but also a negative relationship between rational persuasion and admissions for high-context suspects.
Four studies of what really happens in police interviews.
Parent Book Series:
Decade of behavior/Science conference grant
Bull, Ray and Soukara, Stavroula.
Police interrogations and false confessions: Current research, practice, and policy recommendations. Lassiter, G. Daniel, (Ed); Meissner, Christian A., (Ed); pp. 81-95; Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association; 2010. xviii, 250 pp.
Abstract:
There exist rather few published studies of what actually takes place during police interviews with suspects. Only a proportion of this small sample has provided data concerning the various tactics and skills used by such interviewers, and almost no studies have examined the possible relationship between actual tactic and skill usage and the elicitation of confessions (but see Pearse & Gudjonsson, 1999). The present chapter describes four interrelated studies that provide a significant addition to this limited literature. These four studies were conducted several years after a very major initiative was undertaken in England and Wales to improve and change the way police conduct interviews with suspects, witnesses, and victims. We now present four interrelated studies that were designed to examine not only the extent to which interviewers’ beliefs and interviewers’ actual performance were in line the PEACE approach but also which aspects of their performance (e.g., tactics, skills) might relate to suspects giving a confession. Study 1 found that the views of experienced interviewers and detectives in England appeared to be in line with the new approach (referred to as investigative interviewing) and its evolving training program (PEACE). One major aim of Studies 2 and 3 was to determine if actual police interviewing of suspects was in line with the philosophy behind investigative interviewing. These two studies found this to be the case to a considerable extent (e.g., the absence of oppressive coercive tactics), which clearly suggests that the PEACE approach can be accepted and used by police officers. However, some inappropriate tactics were used in a considerable number of interviews (e.g., leading questions, repeating the same questions, positive confrontation), although Clarke, Milne, and Bull (2009) found fewer leading questions. Studies 3 and 4 also had the major aim of trying to determine whether interviewer use of tactics and skills bore any relationship to the suspect confessing. Interviews largely using the noncoercive PEACE investigative interviewing approach still resulted in confessions. Contrary to what the limited previous research had found (e.g., Baldwin, 1993), most of the suspects who confessed did not do so very early on. This allowed, almost for the first time, examination of whether the interviewer’s behavior influences confessing (as suggested by convicted persons in studies by Holmberg & Christiansson, 2002; Kebbell & Hurren, 2006). Of course, in our research studies it was not possible to determine whether use of the PEACE approach results in fewer false confessions.
Investigative interviewing.
Milne, Becky and Powell, Martine.
The Cambridge handbook of forensic psychology. Brown, Jennifer M., (Ed); Campbell, Elizabeth A., (Ed); pp. 208-214; New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press; 2010. xxiv, 900 pp.
Abstract:
This chapter defines and describes investigative interviewing in criminal cases. Investigative interviewing is a method of communicating with anyone within the investigation process (be they witness, victim, suspect or the first police officer at the scene) in order to obtain the maximum quality of information. As a result, ethical investigative interviewing is at the heart of any police investigation and thus is the root of achieving justice in society. This is because there are two key aims underpinning any investigation and these are to (i) find out what happened, and if anything did happen (ii) to discover who did what. In order to answer these two primary investigative questions investigators need to gather information and invariably the source of the information is a person (e.g. witness, victim, suspect, complainant, first officer at the scene of a crime, emergency services, informant, experts and so on). Thus one of the most important tools in an investigator’s tool box is the ability to interview. Investigative interviews conducted by police can vary greatly in purpose, scope and content (e.g. proactive and reactive investigations). Nevertheless, the common objective of all investigative interviews is to elicit the most accurate, complete and detailed account from an interviewee.
Interviewing suspects: Practice, science, and future directions.
Kassin, Saul M., et.al.
Legal and Criminological Psychology, Vol 15(1), Feb, 2010. pp. 39-55.
Abstract:
Crime suspects in the USA are typically questioned in a two-step process aimed, first, at behavioural lie detection during a pre-interrogation interview, followed by the elicitation of a confession during the interrogation itself (in Great Britain, the practice of investigative interviewing does not make this sharp distinction). Research conducted on the first step shows that police investigators often target innocent people for interrogation because of erroneous but confident judgments of deception. Research on the second step shows that innocent people are sometimes induced to confess to crimes they did not commit as a function of certain dispositional vulnerabilities or the use of overly persuasive interrogation tactics. Citing recent studies, this paper proposes that laboratory paradigms be used to help build more diagnostic models of interrogation. Substantively, we suggest that the British PEACE approach to investigative interviewing may provide a potentially effective alternative to the classic American interrogation. As a matter of policy, we suggest that the videotaping of entire interrogations from a balanced camera perspective is necessary to improve the fact finding accuracy of judges and juries who must evaluate confession evidence in court.
Three things that should be used to guide investigative interviews by military and intelligence agencies.
DeClue, Gregory.
Journal of Psychiatry & Law, Vol 38(1-2), Spr-Sum 2010. Special Issue: Interrogations and confessions. pp. 251-262.
Abstract:
The psychological study of investigative interviewing is over 100 years old (Munsterberg, 1908), with a rich literature and body of knowledge (Drizin and Leo, 2004; Kassin, Drizin, Grisso, Gudjonsson, Leo, & Redlich, 2009). Although behavioral and social science has focused primarily on investigations by police, findings should also be considered by investigators who work for military or intelligence agencies. The state of the science leads to at least three recommendations. First, all investigative interviews should be video-recorded in their entirety, with an equal focus on interviewers and interviewees. Second, rather than seeing interrogation as a method to persuade or coerce an uncooperative subject into confessing, investigators should consider interviews of suspects, victims, witnesses, and sources as investigative interviews, with a common goal of finding the truth. Third, because investigators do not really know which interviewees are guilty (have guilty knowledge) and which are not (do not), no law-enforcement, military, or intelligence-agency interrogator should ever use a technique on a ‘presumed-guilty’ suspect that would not be appropriate for use with an innocent person.
Questioning suspects: A comparative perspective.
Dixon, David.
Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, Vol 26(4), Nov, 2010. pp. 426-440.
Abstract:
This article contrasts the ways in which English-speaking jurisdictions have responded to concerns about practices in the police interrogation of suspects. Since the mid-1990s, a stark contrast has developed between the methods taught to North American police officers via the ‘Reid Technique’ and similar U.S. training programs and the strategy of ‘investigative interviewing’ in England and Wales (and increasingly elsewhere in Europe and Australasia). This policy divergence must be understood in the context of differing responses to miscarriages of justice and investigative failures (caused, at least in part, by inefficient interrogation techniques) and the knowledge which inquiries into these miscarriages and failures produced. While investigative interviewing is part of a response to criminal process failure which sees both wrongful convictions and failed prosecutions as problematic, the United States has been slow to acknowledge the scale of a problem which has not only convicted (and executed) the innocent, but also failed to bring the guilty to justice. Drawing on empirical research in Australia, where audio-visual recording has been used routinely since the early 1990s, the article notes the limits and benefits of electronic recording, which too often is presented as a panacea. The article notes that most discussion of American interrogation takes place in an empirical vacuum and expresses doubts about the prevalent accounts of police practice. It also notes some recent interest in the United States in alternative approaches to interrogating suspects which have developed from the experience of questioning terrorist suspects.
Miscarriages of justice: A call for continued research focussing on reforming the investigative process.
Poyser, Sam and Milne, Becky.
The British Journal of Forensic Practice, Vol 13(2), 2011. pp. 61-71.
Abstract:
Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to consider a major cause of miscarriages of justice worldwide, namely the police investigative and interviewing process. Design/methodology/approach: This phenomenon is examined through the lens of psychiatric and psychological research findings and subsequent recommendations that have made a significant impact in term of changes to legislation, policy, and practice in the UK. Findings: The paper shows that despite major improvements in this area in the UK there is still no room for complacency, as miscarriages of justice continue to occur both here and worldwide. Research limitations/implications: This paper calls for researchers to continue to identify the weaknesses in the police investigative and interview process and to propose reform based on their scientific findings. Originality/value: The paper highlights what remains a somewhat neglected piece of the investigative jigsaw, namely the interviewing of adult victims and witnesses, pinpointing this as an area where transparency and further research is required.
The importance of applied research in investigative interviewing: A real‐life perspective.
Oxburgh, Gavin E., et.al.
Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, Vol 8(2), Jun, 2011. pp. 105-109.
Abstract:
The papers contained within the special issue represent some exciting innovations across different investigative bodies. In addition, all research presented has been conducted in the field. It is believed that such applied research, although often having methodological drawbacks, is of utmost importance in understanding the area from a holistic viewpoint. This special issue examines the role forensic psychology has had and is currently having in investigative interviewing in the real world.
Investigative interviewing of child sex offender suspects: Strategies to assist the application of a narrative framework.
Read, Julianne M. and Powell, Martine B.
Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, Vol 8(2), Jun, 2011. pp. 163-177.
Abstract:
Obtaining a narrative account from a suspect during an investigative interview is recommended in the literature as best practice. However, research shows that interviewers have difficulty adhering to this recommendation. This paper aims to provide police officers who interview sex offender suspects with suggestions that may assist them in the application of a narrative framework. Our approach involved individual in‐depth interviews with experts (N = 16: police trainers, detectives, expert witnesses, defence barristers, and prosecutors) who were leaders in their relative fields, particularly in relation to interviews with sex offender suspects. Specifically, the experts were asked to talk about the process of interviewing and what constitutes a good interview with a sex offender suspect. Several strategies that may assist officers in adhering to a narrative framework were extracted through qualitative analysis of the data. These strategies are described under the following headings: letting the suspects answer the allegations put to them, transferring the locus of control to the suspect, adopting strategies to overcome emotional barriers to reporting, and focusing on the relationship between the suspect and the victim. Directions for future research and training intervention are also discussed.
The effects of evidence on the outcome of interviews with criminal suspects.
Moston, Stephen and Engelberg, Terry.
Police Practice & Research: An International Journal, Vol 12(6), Dec, 2011. pp. 518-526.
Abstract:
Research suggests just over half of all suspects interviewed inside a police station will either confess or make damaging admissions. Surprisingly, police interviewing tactics appear to have only a limited effect on the decision making of suspects. Instead, the strongest predictor of a confession is the strength of evidence against the accused. This paper examines the links between strength of evidence and the outcome of interviews. Data is drawn from previously published studies of police interviewing practices in the USA, UK, and Australia. This review shows how when evidence is strong prior to questioning, such as a suspect having being found in possession of stolen goods, then confessions are the most likely outcome. However, some apparently strong forms of evidence, such as testimony from police officers, can be used inappropriately making confessions less likely. The findings are discussed in relation to training in investigative interviewing skills and investigative practices. The paper also identifies a need for research into the conditions which give rise to true confessions, as opposed to a contemporary focus on the conditions that can result in false confessions.
Review of The art of investigative interviewing.
Gravitz, Melvin A.
American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, Vol 54(3), Jan, 2012. pp. 236-237.
Abstract:
Reviews the book, The art of investigative interviewing by C. L. Yeschke (2003). The author of this useful volume is a federal law enforcement officer with decades of experience in the conduct of numerous criminal investigations. His book is not directly related to hypnosis, as such, but its contents are most relevant to hypnosis professionals who conduct forensic interviews and evaluations. Yeschke outlines the preparation for the interview. He discusses attitude, curiosity, intuition, and the need for flexibility on the part of the professional. This book is highly recommended for readers of this journal who are involved in criminal cases. Despite the focus on crime, hypnosis professionals will find much that is relevant to their clinical specialty and interests.
Review of Police interrogations and false confessions: Current research, practice, and policy recommendations.
Cherryman, Julie.
Legal and Criminological Psychology, Vol 17(1), Feb, 2012. pp. 192-193.
Reviewed Item:
Lassiter, G. Daniel (Ed); Meissner, Christian A. (Ed). (2010) Police interrogations and false confessions: Current research, practice, and policy recommendations Washington: American Psychological Association, 280 pp. £70.95 1433807432 (Hardcover); 978-1433807435.
Abstract:
Reviews the book Police Interrogations and False Confessions: Current Research, Practice, and Policy Recommendations edited by G. Daniel Lassiter and Christian A. Meissner (see record 2009-19611-000). This book is a comprehensive account of Investigative Interviewing in the United States that leaves few stones unturned. This book is stimulating and gives hope for exciting changes to come in interviewing of suspects in the United States. Authors have provided a book that discusses investigative interviewing and false confessions from a number of perspectives. This makes the book essential reading for academics and investigative interviewers alike. It is clear that there is great impetus for change but it seems unclear as to exactly how that change is going to manifest. The book in the afterword, states that ‘other differences between Great Britain and the United States preclude the suggestion that a similar reform of the U.S. interrogation practices will have the same beneficial effects’.
Let ’em talk!: A field study of police questioning practices of suspects and accused persons.
Snook, Brent, et.al.
Criminal Justice and Behavior, Vol 39(10), Oct, 2012. pp. 1328-1339.
Abstract:
The real-life questioning practices of Canadian police officers were examined. Specifically, 80 transcripts of police interviews with suspects and accused persons were coded for the type of questions asked, the length of interviewee response to each question, the proportion of words spoken by interviewer(s) and interviewee, and whether or not a free narrative was requested. Results showed that, on average, less than 1% of the questions asked in an interview were open-ended, and that closed yes–no and probing questions composed approximately 40% and 30% of the questions asked, respectively. The longest interviewee responses were obtained from open-ended questions, followed by multiple and probing question types. A free narrative was requested in approximately 14% of the interviews. The 80–20 talking rule was violated in every interview. The implications of these findings for reforming investigative interviewing of suspects and accused persons are discussed.
The sins of interviewing: Errors made by investigative interviewers and suggestions for redress.
Yarbrough, John, et.al.
Applied issues in investigative interviewing, eyewitness memory, and credibility assessment. Cooper, Barry S., (Ed); Griesel, Dorothee, (Ed); Ternes, Marguerite, (Ed); pp. 59-95; New York, NY, US: Springer Science + Business Media; 2013. xxii, 349 pp.
Abstract:
This chapter examines the ‘Sins of Interviewing’ that were identified as a result of the collaboration between law enforcement professionals, mental health professionals, and academics. The ‘Sins of Interviewing’ were originally developed by the first author. The list of ‘sins’ started with a few and grew over time through experience and recommendations from mentors or associates, and all have since found empirical support. Fifteen sins are currently listed and they all have one variable in common: they detract from achieving the goal of an effective interview. That is, the goal of finding the truth—whatever it might be—and why the person believes it to be the truth. The 15 sins are not meant to be an exhaustive list, and the sins are not meant to be mutually exclusive. The listed sins simply reflect the most common errors committed by interviewers. The following describes these 15 sins and their causes, as well as practical solutions for overcoming them.
The role of rapport in investigative interviewing: A review.
Abbe, Allison and Brandon, Susan E.
Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, Vol 10(3), Oct, 2013. Special Issue: The detection of deception within investigative contexts. pp. 237-249.
Abstract:
Rapport often appears in training and discussions regarding investigative interviewing, yet very little empirical research has examined rapport systematically in law enforcement or intelligence settings. Using a model of rapport developed from therapeutic settings, we address in this paper the components of rapport and their relevance to investigative interviewing. Rapport can play a facilitating role in supporting the goals of an investigative interview, to include developing a working alliance between interviewer and source, exercising social influence, and educing information from a source. A better understanding of how rapport develops in these contexts and its impact on interview outcomes would enhance the effectiveness of investigative interviewing. Research on rapport in the investigative interview would enhance our understanding of the interpersonal dynamics in these situations. We identify several gaps that such research should address, including the relationship between rapport and social influence and the development of rapport in multiparty interactions.
Cost and benefit of a new instruction for the cognitive interview: The open depth instruction.
Brunel, Maïté, et.al.
Psychology, Crime & Law, Vol 19(10), Nov, 2013. pp. 845-863.
Abstract:
The quality and the quantity of information recalled by eyewitnesses during a criminal investigation is of crucial importance. To increase the volume of details recalled during an interview, the cognitive interview recommends using various retrieval strategies to enhance recall. We tested a new retrieval instruction, the open depth (OD) instruction. The efficacy of this new instruction was assessed with the number of unit of information and the accuracy rate. We also assessed the cost-and-benefit of this new instruction with measures of repetition. Students watched a video of a simulated robbery and participated later in face-to-face interviews. In Study 1 (N = 60), the cognitive interview using the OD instruction increased recall compared to the interview using the change of perspective (CP) instruction, without affecting the accuracy rate. The redundancy rate was higher with the OD instruction than with the CP instruction. In Study 2 (N = 40), the OD instruction generated more new information without affecting the accuracy rate than the interview using motivated recall (MR) instruction. The repeated information to new information ratio was lower with the OD instruction than with the MR instruction. The advantages of the OD instruction for investigative interviewing purposes are discussed.
Strategic Use of Evidence during investigative interviews: The state of the science.
Hartwig, Maria, et.al.
Credibility assessment: Scientific research and applications. Raskin, David C., (Ed); Honts, Charles R., (Ed); Kircher, John C., (Ed); pp. 1-36; San Diego, CA, US: Elsevier Academic Press; 2014. xxi, 393 pp.
Abstract:
Judging veracity is an important part of investigative interviewing. The aim of this chapter is to review the literature on a technique developed to assist interviewers in judging the veracity of the reports obtained in interviews. More specifically, the purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of the research program on the Strategic Use of Evidence (SUE) technique. The SUE technique is an interviewing framework that aims to improve the ability to make correct judgments of credibility, through the elicitation of cues to deception and truth. As such, it is not a general framework that will accomplish all goals relevant to interviewing and interrogation. However, as will be shown in this chapter, the SUE approach can help an interviewer plan, structure, and conduct an interview with a suspect in such a way that cues to deception may become more pronounced. As will be described, the SUE technique relies on various forms of strategic employment of the available information or evidence. While the SUE technique was originally developed to plan, structure, conduct, and evaluate interviews in criminal contexts, the theoretical principles apply to interviews and interrogations in other contexts, including those in which the goal is intelligence gathering. We will first provide an overview of the core findings from a vast body of research on human ability to judge truth and deception. This overview will serve to contextualize the research on the SUE technique and illustrate the ways in which the technique departs from many other lie detection techniques. After reviewing basic work on judgments of truth and deception, we will turn to the fundamental principles on which the SUE framework is based. We will describe the central role of counter-interrogation strategies (i.e., the approaches suspects adopt in order to reach their goal during an interview), and we will review both theoretical and empirical work on the topic of counter-interrogation strategies. Subsequently, we will describe research on how to translate the basic theoretical principles into interview tactics. That is, we will describe research on strategic questions that aim to produce different responses from truthful and deceptive suspects. We will also review approaches to disclose the information in varying forms to produce cues to concealment and deception. Finally, we will offer the first meta-analysis of the available SUE research, in order to provide a quantitative synthesis of the literature to date.
Investigative interviewing in suspected sex offences.
Westera, Nina J. and Kebbell, Mark R.
Investigative interviewing. Bull, Ray, (Ed); pp. 1-18; New York, NY, US: Springer Science + Business Media; 2014. xix, 245 pp.
Abstract:
Suspected sex offences are difficult to investigate and prosecute. In many instances, the only evidence that exists is an account from a complainant and one from a suspect. This means that the way that these accounts are elicited with an investigative interview are critical. In this chapter, we will outline what we know about effective strategies for interviewing both complainants and suspects. Effective interviewing of complainants can dramatically increase the volume of information a complainant provides and has the potential to increase the credibility of this evidence. This is especially relevant now that recorded police interviews can be provided as evidence-in-chief in some jurisdictions. Suspect interviewing can be enhanced by using nonjudgmental approaches, allowing suspects to give their own account, and by other methods. We will draw together complainant and suspect interviewing to show how effective investigative interviewing can enhance the investigation and prosecution of sex crimes. Promisingly, a move towards video and audio recording these interviews allows psychological researchers to now examine this previously hidden world (Baldwin 1993). Coupled with methodological advances, this access has resulted in an increasingly sophisticated understanding about how to effectively interview suspects and complainants. In this chapter, we examine how this growing body of research might help improve the completeness and accuracy of information available for investigations into sex offending against adults. We also add to the body of literature by exploring the less researched area of how to optimize the relevance of information to help an investigation and any subsequent prosecution establish criminal culpability. We suggest that applying these understandings provides a pathway to increase the likelihood that not only are the guilty convicted, but also the falsely accused are exonerated. We start by providing context about how rape investigations are often conducted and hence what type of information is likely to influence the outcome of cases. We then turn our attention to how to elicit this information from the complainant and the suspect(s).
Psychological processes underlying true and false confessions.
Houston, Kate A., ORCID 0000-0002-7984-8084 . University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX, US, khouston@utep.edu
Investigative interviewing. Bull, Ray, (Ed); pp. 19-34; New York, NY, US: Springer Science +
Abstract:
The current chapter will provide a brief review of the relevant theoretical approaches to understanding confessions and describe the variety of internal and external pressures that individuals may experience in the interrogation process. We consider decision-making approaches that focus on the consequences of confession as a key motivator, as well as the role of emotional or affective responses resulting from the interrogative process. We also assess the potential influence of internal experiences of guilt, remorse, and accountability, which may lead a suspect towards a ‘need to confess’, and the influence of external social pressures to comply with the demands of an interrogator. Finally, we discuss the framework offered by Gudjonsson (2003) that brings together these and other motivational factors. After considering the various theoretical accounts of confession, we discuss field studies that have begun to assess key psychological motivators for providing true versus false confessions. We then present a meta-analysis of the various social, cognitive, and affective factors leading to confession across six experimental laboratory studies we have conducted using the Russano et al. (2005a) paradigm, contrasting our laboratory findings with those of prior studies. We synthesize this research by proposing a process model, highlighting key differences in the psychological states that may lead to true and false confessions. Our thesis is that true and false confessions may be distinguished by several key psychological factors, and that an understanding of such factors can lead to the development of diagnostic interrogative approaches. Specifically, we propose that guilty individuals can be driven to confess based upon their perceptions of the evidence against them and certain internalized feelings of guilt, accountability, and responsibility for their actions. In contrast, we propose that false confessions are driven by innocent suspects’ perceptions of the potential consequences of confessing and the social pressures placed upon them to comply with an interrogator’s request for a confession.
Between investigator and suspect: The role of the working alliance in investigative interviewing.
Vanderhallen, Miet and Vervaeke, Geert
Investigative interviewing. Bull, Ray, (Ed); pp. 63-90; New York, NY, US: Springer Science +
Abstract:
Interviewees often experience being questioned by the police as an uncomfortable and stressful event. These feelings become even stronger for those being questioned as suspects, as the police typically focus on stringent accounts of the interviewees’ behavior in order to find out whether they were involved in the crime. For many suspects, this does not create a good foundation for an open and detailed conversation. The importance of rapport within the context of investigative interviewing has been acknowledged in the scientific literature and in interview manuals. The word ‘rapport’ originates from the Latin word portare, which literally means ‘to carry’. It is commonly agreed that building rapport is an essential ingredient for successful interviews, in that it helps conversations to flow more freely. Police officers should ‘control’ their interviews and not ‘dominate’ them, as domination is counterproductive. Similarly, confrontations should be avoided early in the interview, as they could hamper the process of building rapport, thereby causing the suspect to distrust the interviewer and withdraw all cooperation. The ability to build rapport is considered one of the principles of successful interviewing and one of the core skills that interviewers need. St-Yves (2009) argues that the effectiveness of interview techniques depends upon good rapport, thus identifying rapport as a necessary condition for effective suspect interviews. While good rapport can make it easier for an innocent suspect to provide an elaborate account, respectful treatment can also encourage a guilty suspect to provide a fuller account.
Investigative interviewing and training: The investigative interviewer apprentice.
Smets, Lotte and Rispens, Imke
Investigative interviewing. Bull, Ray, (Ed); pp. 147-165; New York, NY, US: Springer Science + Business Media; 2014. xix, 245 pp.
Abstract:
Interviewing individuals, be they witnesses, victims, suspects or minors, is crucial in policing. Within the context of investigation and for many decades, a great,deal of research has been done into police interviewing. So far, the focus of this research has been on revealing the truth, the objective of the interview and generating reliable and valid information. This research has increased our knowledge about which investigative interview techniques and attitudes are more likely to lead to accurate information. In turn, this has led to an increased emphasis on the importance of thorough training that concentrates on learning these well-founded interview techniques, as well as on structural training (i.e. evaluating and coaching of people’s investigative interview practices). In practice, there are various kinds of coaching, such as supervision, intervision (this is discussing practice with peers), evaluation, group and individual coaching. These different methods share a common and explicit aim: to improve quality by evaluating an individual’s performance and through giving and receiving feedback. Currently, supervision and coaching initiatives are being organised within the police organisation in both the Netherlands and Belgium. The usefulness and effect of these various kinds of coaching will be discussed in this chapter. In the first part, we will explain why working with coaching, both group and individual, is a necessary aspect of optimising investigative interview competences. By way of introduction, we then go on to concentrate on the various kinds of coaching methods—supervision and intervision are terms that are used a lot these days—and why generating and processing feedback should be an essential daily practice for investigative interviewers. Finally, we conclude the introductory section by reporting on the findings of recent research showing that coaching has a positive learning effect on interviewers. The second part of this chapter discusses coaching opportunities and their potential for police investigative interview practice in greater depth. What is interviewing coaching? Why is it advisable to use it? And what does an interviewing coach’s job profile look like? We go on to give practical tips for giving and receiving feedback. Our objective is to work towards integrated coaching practices and optimal interview techniques.
When in interviews to disclose information to suspects and to challenge them?
Bull, Ray
Investigative interviewing. Bull, Ray, (Ed); pp. 167-181; New York, NY, US: Springer Science + Business Media; 2014. xix, 245 pp.
Abstract:
This chapter commences with an overview of recommendations made since the 1980s concerning how to reduce the resistance some suspects (especially guilty ones) may feel about talking in interviews with investigators. Then, recent research on what guilty suspects have actually said about their pre-interview willingness to admit/confess will be described. Following this, advice given over the decades in several countries about how to confront suspects in interviews with information that may incriminate them will be presented. The ensuing sections of the chapter will review some of our recent research on when in interviews it seems best to do this. The chapter will end with a brief account of one of the best interrogators of all time.
Human intelligence interviewing and interrogation: Assessing the challenges of developing an ethical, evidence-based approach.
Hartwig, Maria, et.al.
Investigative interviewing. Bull, Ray, (Ed); pp. 209-228; New York, NY, US: Springer Science + Business Media; 2014. xix, 245 pp.
Abstract:
The purpose of this chapter is to review the available research on Human Intelligence (HUMINT) interrogations. We will argue that there has been a recent paradigm shift in the approach to HUMINT interrogations. We will describe the conceptual, methodological, and practical implications of this paradigm shift. The chapter will be structured as follows. First, we will describe the defining characteristics of HUMINT interrogations and outline the scope of our discussion. We will describe how the challenges of HUMINT interrogations may be similar as well as different from interrogations in criminal settings. Second, in order to provide a context for our claim of a paradigm shift, we provide a historical overview of practice and research on HUMINT interrogations. Third, we offer a review of the current state of knowledge about the psychology of HUMINT interrogations, with a particular focus on methods that have been shown to be effective. Finally, we will outline several challenges for future research in this domain, and discuss how research on HUMINT may proceed to fill the gap in current knowledge.
Misleading suggestions can alter later memory reports even following a cognitive interview.
LaPaglia, Jessica A., et.al.
Applied Cognitive Psychology, Vol 28(1), Jan-Feb, 2014. pp. 1-9.
Abstract:
SUMMARY Taking an immediate recall test prior to misinformation exposure can increase eyewitness suggestibility—a finding termed retrieval‐enhanced suggestibility. Here, we examined whether retrieval‐enhanced suggestibility would occur when participants were administered an immediate Cognitive Interview (CI). The CI is an investigative interviewing technique that consistently elicits more correct details in memory reports than standard interviews. In this study, participants watched a video of a crime and then completed a distractor task (control condition), a free recall test, or the CI. They then heard misinformation presented in a narrative. Participants produced more accurate memory details in the CI than in free recall despite spending equal time on both tasks. However, the CI also increased the later report of misinformation relative to the control condition. These results show that initial retrieval can increase subsequent suggestibility even when such retrieval occurs under relatively ideal conditions.
The positive relationship between police rapport tactics and investigative interviewing outcomes.
Moraes, Susan L.
Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, Vol 74(12-B)(E), 2014.
Abstract:
Police interviews with suspects and accused persons are performed on a regular basis to obtain information and admissions required to resolve investigations. Psychological theories have suggested that the interaction that occurs between the interviewer and interviewee can influence the outcome of the interview. For instance, an investigator may be able to influence a suspect’s ability to provide information or an admission through the use of rapport—a positive social influence tactic. Both verbal and non-verbal correlates of rapport as positive social influencing tactics have not been studied widely in the literature and are the focus of this study. This study examined 40 digital video recordings of adult suspects/accused persons convicted of crimes. There were 14 independent variables (7 verbal and 7 non-verbal rapport tactics). The 2 dependent variables were the total amount of bits of information obtained from suspects and the final outcome (full admission, partial admission, denial, and no comment). The rapport variables were developed based on the work completed by previous researchers. Multiple regression analyses were completed to answer several research questions and hypotheses. Results showed that (a) overall rapport was a significant predictor of overall bits of information provided, (b) verbal overall rapport was a significant predictor of final interview outcome (admissions), (c) supportive questioning and clarifying or summarizing (verbal rapport) were significant predictors of the number of bits of information, (d) body orientation and forward lean (non-verbal rapport) were significant predictors of the number of bits of information, (e) supportive questioning and fluidity of conversation (verbal rapport) were significant predictors of final outcome (admissions), and (f) head nodding (non-verbal rapport) was a significant predictor of final outcome (admissions). The results suggest that some verbal and non-verbal social influencing tactics are associated with the amount of information provided and the likelihood of obtaining admissions from suspects. The study aids in the acquisition of knowledge of investigative interviews with suspects. Investigative interviewing of suspects is the cornerstone of our system of justice and for the ethical prosecution of cases. Thus, the study suggested evidence-based adequate and sustainable training should be implemented to all police investigators to maximize skills, and minimize the miscarriage of justice that is also cost effective. Furthermore, the collaborative partnerships between researchers and law enforcement are essential to establish practice guidelines and training methods for the future of investigative interviewing practices.
Retrieval enhances eyewitness suggestibility to misinformation in free and cued recall.
Wilford, Miko M., et.al.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, Vol 20(1), Mar, 2014. pp. 81-93.
Abstract:
Immediately recalling a witnessed event can increase people’s susceptibility to later postevent misinformation. But this retrieval-enhanced suggestibility (RES) effect has been shown only when the initial recall test included specific questions that reappeared on the final test. Moreover, it is unclear whether this phenomenon is affected by the centrality of event details. These limitations make it difficult to generalize RES to criminal investigations, which often begin with free recall prior to more specific queries from legal officials and attorneys. In 3 experiments, we examined the influence of test formats (free recall vs. cued recall) and centrality of event details (central vs. peripheral) on RES. In Experiment 1, both the initial and final tests were cued recall. In Experiment 2, the initial test was free recall and the final test was cued recall. In Experiment 3, both the initial and final tests were free recall. Initial testing increased misinformation reporting on the final test for peripheral details in all experiments, but the effect was significant for central details only after aggregating the data from all 3 experiments. These results show that initial free recall can produce RES, and more broadly, that free recall can potentiate subsequent learning of complex prose materials.
The relationship between investigative interviewing experience and open-ended question usage.
Powell, Martine B., et.al.
Police Practice & Research: An International Journal, Vol 15(4), Jul, 2014. pp. 283-292.
Abstract:
We present three studies examining the role of prior job experience in interviewing and interviewers’ ability to learn open-ended questions during a training program. We predicted a negative relationship such that more experienced interviewers would perform worse after training than less experienced interviewers, and that (irrespective of baseline performance) the more experienced interviewers would improve the least during training. These predictions were made for two reasons. First, specific questions are commonly used in the workplace (i.e. open-ended questioning constitutes new learning). Second, experience in the use of specific questions potentially interferes with newly learned open-ended questions. Overall, our predictions were supported across different participant samples (including police officers specialized in child abuse investigation and social workers from the child protection area), time delays, and modes of training. The results highlight the need for investment in ongoing investigative interviewing training commencing early during professionals’ careers, prior to the establishment of long-term habits in the use of specific questions.
Interpreter linguistic intervention in the strategies employed by police in investigative interviews.
Lai, Miranda and Mulayim, Sedat.
Police Practice & Research: An International Journal, Vol 15(4), Jul, 2014. pp. 307-321.
Abstract:
Police interviews are high-stakes activities that bear legal consequences when the cases move to court proceedings. A wide range of literature exists on police interviewing strategies aiming to obtain complete information from the interviewee; however, this literature focuses primarily on monolingual settings only. This paper reports on an empirical study examining the word choices made by interpreters of 11 selected languages in three scripted police interview excerpts. The study found that considered verbal strategies deliberately employed by police in investigative interviewing may be interfered with by the interpreter in a bilingual setting. The authors discuss the implications of such linguistic intervention for police interview outcomes and propose improvements for the training of interpreters and police.
Rapport operationalized as a humanitarian interview in investigative interview settings.
Holmberg, Ulf and Madsen, Kent.
Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, Vol 21(4), Jul, 2014. pp. 591-610.
Abstract:
This study describes and tests an empirical-based theoretical model of rapport in an investigative interview context. Essential in this study is whether rapport, operationalized as the humanitarian interview, in two interviews with a six-month retention interval, had any causal effects on the respective memory performance of 146 and 127 interviewees. Independent-samples t‑tests revealed, on both occasions, that a humanitarian rapport interview led to a larger amount of reported information altogether, with more central and peripheral information, than a dominant non-rapport interview did. Regardless of the interview approach, mixed between-within analysis of variance showed a substantially larger amount of reported information in the first interview than the second. The amount of false information reported in both interviews was statistically invariable, regardless of interviewing style.
Exploring the disclosure of forensic evidence in police interviews with suspects.
Smith, Lisa L. and Bull, Ray.
Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, Vol 29(2), Oct, 2014. pp. 81-86.
Abstract:
Despite many years of empirical research focusing on investigative interviewing and detecting deception, very little research attention has been paid to the various types of evidence which feature in police interviews with suspects. In particular, the use of forensic evidence in the context of police interviews has not been previously considered, although in recent years the availability of various types of forensic analyses has dramatically increased. In the current study 398 experienced police interviewers from various countries completed a questionnaire about their experience of using various types of forensic evidence in interviews with suspects, as well as their perceptions regarding the strength of various sources of forensic information and how this may affect their interviewing strategy. The results indicated that although the participants have forensic evidence available in a large proportion of their interviews with suspects, the vast majority of police interviewers have received no training about how to interpret or use such forensic information. However, the perceived strength of forensic evidence was reported by some participants to affect their interview strategy and specifically the timing of the disclosure of such evidence during an interview. These findings are discussed with reference to police training and interview techniques, and suggestions for further research are offered.
‘we’ll take it from here’: The effect of changing interviewers in information gathering interviews.
Shaw, Dominic J., et.al.
Applied Cognitive Psychology, Vol 28(6), Nov-Dec, 2014. pp. 908-916.
Abstract:
A common strategy in interviewing is to repeatedly focus on the same topics, for example by asking to recall an event first in chronological order and then in reverse order. We examined the effect of changing interviewers between the two questions or keeping the same interviewers throughout on cues to deception. Truth tellers may be most encouraged to recall again what they have witnessed when confronted with new interviewers, as these new interviewers have not heard their story before. Liars may be most encouraged to recall again their story when confronted with the same interviewers, realising that these interviewers will check for consistency in their answers. The impact of changing interviewers should lead to more pronounced differences between truth tellers and liars in terms of detail and repetition in the ‘Changed Interviewers’ condition compared with the ‘Same Interviewers’ condition. Participants were interviewed by two interviewers about a mock security meeting they attended. In half the interviews, the same two interviewers remained throughout, and in the other half, two new interviewers took over half‐way through. As predicted, differences between truth tellers and liars in terms of detail and repetition were most pronounced in the ‘Changed Interviewers’ condition. Changing interviewers during an interview effectively differentiates liars and truth tellers with respect to detail and repetition. We discuss this finding and its place within investigative interviewing and deception detection literature.
Information gathering: Practical concerns.
Khader, Majeed.
Applied Cognitive Psychology, Vol 28(6), Nov-Dec, 2014. pp. 947-948.
Abstract:
This commentary is about the practical aspects of investigative interviewing and intelligence gathering. It discusses the real world applications and challenges of applying theory to field settings in intelligence and investigation work.
Examining the positive effects of rapport building: When and why does rapport building benefit adult eyewitness memory?
Kieckhaefer, Jenna Mitchell, et.al.
Memory, Vol 22(8), Nov, 2014. pp. 1010-1023.
Abstract:
Most investigative interviewing protocols recommend building rapport with cooperative adult witnesses to increase the accuracy of their reports. Although a few recent studies support the benefits of rapport building on adult witness recall, no study has examined whether the timing of rapport in relation to post-event misinformation affects recall accuracy, and whether these effects are related to witness anxiety levels throughout the interview. The present study provided two hundred and thirty-three undergraduates with a videotaped mock crime followed by building high or low rapport either before or after they received post-event misinformation. All witnesses were then interviewed about the mock crime. Results indicated that high rapport before misinformation increased the amount of accurate information reported in a subsequent witness interview compared to low rapport. However, these recall benefits were not due to a reduction in anxiety. Theoretical implications and practical recommendations for police interviewing practices are discussed.
An Garda Síochána model of investigative interviewing of witnesses and suspects.
Noone, Geraldine.
Investigating terrorism: Current political, legal and psychological issues. Pearse, John, (Ed); pp.
Abstract:
This chapter, which provides the first detailed description of the background and development of the model, the conceptual framework and its key components, will introduce the new model, describe the components and outline the rationale for them and the training involved in each phase. The context in which investigative interviewing takes place in Ireland will also be described, together with the background to this initiative and a brief literature review relating to investigative interviewing models used by other police forces, before concluding with some observations about challenges for the future.
Interviewees’ psychological well-being in investigative interviews: A therapeutic jurisprudential approach.
Madsen, Kent, et.al.
Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, Vol 22(1), Jan, 2015. pp. 60-74.
Abstract:
Therapeutic jurisprudence sees the law as a social force; its underlying idea is that legal procedures should promote the psychological well-being (PWB) of individuals involved in juridical actions. In this experimental study, 146 subjects were assigned to one of two groups: one undergoing humanitarian rapport interviews, the other undergoing non-rapport interviews. Each group underwent two interviews separated by a six-month interval. The causal effects of interview style on interviewees’ PWB were measured using sense of coherence and State–Trait Anxiety inventories, both pre and post interview at Interviews I and II. Analysis of covariance of scores from both interviews showed interaction effects between interview style and interviewees’ anxiety and sense of coherence, respectively. At Interview I, a non-rapport approach was related to increased anxiety, that is, decreased PWB when comparing pre- and post-interview testing. At Interview II, a humanitarian rapport approach promoted improved sense of coherence, thus, increased PWB. More empirical research on PWB in relation to therapeutic jurisprudence is needed. The discussion focuses on how PWB should be measured in a therapeutic jurisprudential context of investigative interviews.
PEACE in fraud interviews: Assumptions and detection of guilt and the impact on interviewer behaviour.
Shawyer, Andrea and Milne, Rebecca.
Crime Prevention and Community Safety, Vol 17(1), Feb, 2015. pp. 30-46.
Abstract:
A survey was conducted in the United Kingdom to identify the beliefs and attitudes of Department for Work and Pensions and police fraud investigators towards the PEACE model of interviewing with particular focus on assumptions of guilt, interviewer characteristics and detecting deception. There was support for the usefulness of the PEACE model for fraud interviews, although assumptions of guilt before these interviews were widespread. This finding was coupled with stereotypical beliefs about cues to deception, despite a general view that open mindedness and good listening skills were key features of a good interviewer. It was concluded that the way in which fraud investigations are carried out challenges the expectation that the interviewer will not assume guilt before the interview but does not necessarily challenge the expectation that the interviewer will have an open-minded and non-judgemental attitude. Beliefs about cues to deception should be challenged and substituted for more reliable indicators.
Methods and aims of investigative interviewing of adult witnesses: An analysis of professional practices.
Launay, C.. Laboratoire
Pratiques Psychologiques, Vol 21(1), Mar, 2015. pp. 55-70.
Abstract:
Eyewitnesses provide crucial evidence for the investigation of criminal cases. We analysed professional police interviewers’ behaviour by conducting a literature review. Our results indicate that the interviewing techniques used by untrained and trained investigators are predominantly inappropriate and harmful to memory recall. The way investigators curtail and select witnesses’ responses suggests that they look for specific information. As a subsequent step, we analysed investigative interviewing in terms of professional objectives, identifying the types of information that the police inquire about during the interview. Based on our results, we conclude future research should perform a fine-grained analysis of professional interviewing procedures with the aim of producing effective interviewing techniques that meet investigators’ real-world objectives.
Should police use ACID? Training and credibility assessment using transcripts versus recordings.
Colwell, Kevin, et.al.
Journal of Forensic Psychology Practice, Vol 15(3), May, 2015. pp. 226-247.
Abstract:
There is a need for an applicable system of investigative interviewing and credibility assessment that extends science to practice. Experiment 1: Officers assessed the credibility of colleagues in a face-to-face interaction. Fourteen of sixteen officers were wrong in determining whether their colleague was responding honestly to them or lying to them. Experiment 2 compared untrained officers to officers trained in Assessment Criteria Indicative of Deception (ACID) in their ability to assess the credibility of statements regarding real and mock crimes by analyzing either verbatim transcripts or audio recordings. Officers who were trained in ACID performed significantly better after training than before, and significantly better than a group of officers who were never trained in ACID (89% correct versus 53% correct). No differences emerged due to analyzing transcripts versus recordings. The practical aspects of these results are discussed, including success rate, ease of application, and ease of training. The theoretical discussion includes differential recall enhancement and impression management. Finally, limitations and suggestions for future research are presented.
Rapport-building during witness and suspect interviews: A survey of law enforcement.
Vallano, Jonathan P., et.al.
Applied Cognitive Psychology, Vol 29(3), May-Jun, 2015. pp. 369-380.
Abstract:
Building rapport with adult witnesses and suspects is recommended by major investigative interviewing protocols (e.g., Cognitive Interview and the Army Field Manual in the USA and PEACE in the UK). Although recent research suggests that building rapport can sometimes benefit police investigations by increasing the accuracy of adult eyewitness reports and potentially enhance the diagnosticity of evidence obtained from suspects, little data exist regarding how law enforcement interviewers actually define and build rapport in real‐world investigations. To fill this void, the present study distributed a questionnaire containing open and closed‐ended questions to 123 law enforcement interviewers in police training courses to determine how they conceptualize and build rapport with adult interviewees. Results indicate that a majority of law enforcement interviewers define rapport as a positive relationship involving trust and communication, with a strong minority defining rapport as a ‘positive or negative’ relationship. Further, law enforcement interviewers reported building rapport with adult witnesses and suspects in a similar manner, often by using verbal techniques (e.g., discussing common interests via small talk) and non‐verbal techniques (e.g., displaying understanding via empathy and sympathy). Theoretical and applied implications of these results are discussed.
Productive and counterproductive interviewing techniques: Do law enforcement investigators know the difference?
Hirn Mueller, Dana, et.al.
Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, Vol 21(3), Aug, 2015. pp. 295-308.
Abstract:
To date, there has been very little research examining the knowledge and perceived use of productive and counterproductive investigative interviewing techniques by U.S. law enforcement. The current study attempted to address this gap in the literature by presenting 212 U.S. law enforcement interviewers with video vignettes depicting productive and counterproductive interviewing techniques via an online survey. Interviewers were asked to identify each technique, report their use of each technique, and give their reasons for use and nonuse, respectively. In a subsequent section of the survey, participants were given the names and descriptions of the techniques previously shown in the videos and asked to rate the efficacy of each technique. Investigative interview training experience and knowledge of the National Institute of Justice guidelines for eyewitness evidence were also assessed. Results revealed that real-world interviewers report using productive techniques more frequently than counterproductive techniques and that the primary reason for using any interviewing technique is its perceived efficacy in gathering accurate and plentiful information. Participants also rated productive techniques as being more effective at gathering accurate and plentiful information compared to counterproductive techniques. Of participants who reported receiving academy training after the National Institute of Justice guidelines were released, only 14.6% indicated that their interview training was based on those guidelines. Taken together, law enforcement investigators presented a general awareness that using productive witness interviewing techniques elicits more plentiful, accurate information from witnesses.
Interviewing suspects: Examining the association between skills, questioning, evidence disclosure, and interview outcomes.
Walsh, Dave and Bull, Ray.
Psychology, Crime & Law, Vol 21(7), Aug, 2015. pp. 661-680.
Abstract:
The interviewing of suspects is an important element in the investigation of crime. However, studies concerning actual performance of investigators when undertaking such interviews remain sparse. Nevertheless, in England and Wales, since the introduction of a prescribed framework over 20 years ago, field studies have generally shown an improvement in interviewing performance, notwithstanding ongoing concerns largely relating to the more demanding aspects (such as building/maintaining rapport, intermittent summarising and the logical development of topics). Using a sample of 70 real-life interviews, the present study examined questioning and various evidence disclosure strategies (which have also been found demanding), examining their relationships between interview skills and interview outcomes. It was found that when evidence was disclosed gradually (but revealed later), interviews were generally both more skilled and involved the gaining of comprehensive accounts, whereas when evidence was disclosed either early or very late, interviews were found to be both less skilled and less likely to involve this outcome. These findings contribute towards an increased research base for the prescribed framework.
Interviewing suspects: Examining the association between skills, questioning, evidence disclosure, and interview outcomes.
Walsh, Dave and Bull, Ray.
Psychology, Crime & Law, Vol 21(7), Aug, 2015. pp. 661-680.
Abstract:
The interviewing of suspects is an important element in the investigation of crime. However, studies concerning actual performance of investigators when undertaking such interviews remain sparse. Nevertheless, in England and Wales, since the introduction of a prescribed framework over 20 years ago, field studies have generally shown an improvement in interviewing performance, notwithstanding ongoing concerns largely relating to the more demanding aspects (such as building/maintaining rapport, intermittent summarising and the logical development of topics). Using a sample of 70 real-life interviews, the present study examined questioning and various evidence disclosure strategies (which have also been found demanding), examining their relationships between interview skills and interview outcomes. It was found that when evidence was disclosed gradually (but revealed later), interviews were generally both more skilled and involved the gaining of comprehensive accounts, whereas when evidence was disclosed either early or very late, interviews were found to be both less skilled and less likely to involve this outcome. These findings contribute towards an increased research base for the prescribed framework.
A reverse order interview does not aid deception detection regarding intentions.
Fenn, Elise, et.al.
Frontiers in Psychology, Vol 6, Aug 31, 2015. ArtID: 1298
Abstract:
Promising recent research suggests that more cognitively demanding interviews improve deception detection accuracy. Would these cognitively demanding techniques work in the same way when discriminating between true and false future intentions? In Experiment 1 participants planned to complete a task, but instead were intercepted and interviewed about their intentions. Participants lied or told the truth, and were subjected to high (reverse order) or low (sequential order) cognitive load interviews. Third-party observers watched these interviews and indicated whether they thought the person was lying or telling the truth. Subjecting participants to a reverse compared to sequential interview increased the misidentification rate and the appearance of cognitive load in truth tellers. People lying about false intentions were not better identified. In Experiment 2, a second set of third-party observers rated behavioral cues. Consistent with Experiment 1, truth tellers, but not liars, exhibited more behaviors associated with lying and fewer behaviors associated with truth telling in the reverse than sequential interview. Together these results suggest that certain cognitively demanding interviews may be less useful when interviewing to detect false intentions. Explaining a true intention while under higher cognitive demand places truth tellers at risk of being misclassified. There may be such a thing as too much cognitive load induced by certain techniques.
Mimicry and investigative interviewing: Using deliberate mimicry to elicit information and cues to deceit.
Shaw, Dominic J., et.al.
Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, Vol 12(3), Oct, 2015. pp. 217-230.
Abstract:
We examined the effect of deliberate mimicry on eliciting (accurate) information and cues to deceit. Mimicry is considered to facilitate cooperation and compliance in truth tellers, whereas liars are constrained to provide detail. We therefore expected truth tellers to be more detailed than liars, particularly after being mimicked. A total of 165 participants told the truth or lied about a meeting they attended. During the interview, an interviewer mimicked half of the participants. Truth tellers were more detailed than liars, but only in the ‘mimicry present’ condition. Truth tellers also gave more accurate units of information than liars, and the difference was most pronounced in the ‘mimicry present’ condition. Mimicry as a tool for eliciting information and cues to deceit fits well with the emerging ‘interviewing to detect deception’ literature, particularly in the ‘encouraging interviewees to say more’ approach.
Interviewing to elicit information: Using priming to promote disclosure.
Dawson, Evan. John Jay, et.al.
Law and Human Behavior, Vol 39(5), Oct, 2015. pp. 443-450.
Abstract:
Research on implicit cognition has found that activating mental concepts can lead people to behave in ways that are consistent with the primed concept. In a pilot study we tested the effects of priming attachment security on the accessibility of disclosure-related concepts. Subsequently, we tested whether activating disclosure concepts by priming attachment security would influence people’s forthcomingness. Participants (N = 102) delivered a flash drive to a confederate who exposed them to details of a mock eco terrorism conspiracy, which they were subsequently interviewed about. Before being interviewed, half of the participants were primed; the other half were not. Results showed that primed participants disclosed significantly more information than those who were not primed. Our findings highlight the need for further research on basic nonconscious processes in investigative interviews, as such influences can affect the outcome of the interview. The operation of nonconscious influences in such contexts has implications for practitioners, who may be able to utilize priming to facilitate disclosure.
Investigative interviewing: Harnessing the power of the team.
Driskell, Tripp and Salas, Eduardo.
Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, Vol 19(4), Dec, 2015. pp. 273-289.
Abstract:
Teams are ubiquitous in the world of work, in part because they offer the capacity to reduce workload and enhance performance on complex tasks. One task that has taken on heightened importance in today’s world is the investigative interview, an information-gathering interview that is conducted in settings as diverse as airport screening, military checkpoints, law enforcement, corporate fraud, and intelligence settings. The goal of this research is to examine how the ‘power’ of teams may be exploited by utilizing pairs of interviewers to conduct the investigative interview. Results indicate that there are benefits and drawbacks to tandem interviews. Specifically, tandem interviewers achieved superior interview outcomes than individual interviewers, including a reduction in cognitive demand, more attention to issue-relevant information (i.e., story cues), and greater use of open-ended questions. On the other hand, the use of tandem interviewers resulted in lower interviewee rapport and tandem interviewers were no more adept at detecting deception than single interviewers. In brief, the results suggest a tangible benefit to the tandem interview. Implications for practice and application are discussed.
Exploring types and functions of questions in police interviews.
Parent Book Series:
Wiley series in the psychology of crime, policing and law
Grant, Tim, et.al.
Communication in investigative and legal contexts: Integrated approaches from forensic psychology, linguistics and law enforcement. Oxburgh, Gavin, (Ed); Myklebust, Trond, (Ed); Grant, Tim, (Ed); Milne, Rebecca, (Ed); pp. 17-38; Wiley Blackwell; 2016. xxiv, 377 pp.
Abstract:
Most investigative interviewing chapters in the current volume begin with the wealth of psychological literature. As with any research programme, this has provided within-paradigm advances; however, there are the occasionally notes about the inadequacy of some aspects of the paradigm. One example is that many studies have attempted to define and categorize questioning, but as Cerovic (2010, p. 10) notes it can be, ‘…difficult to define the act of questioning as questions can perform numerous different purposes, not just information seeking.’ Oxburgh, Myklebust and Grant (2010) also problematize the categorization of question types as used in police interviews, pointing out the proliferation of categorization schemes, which are mostly developed from psychologists’ understanding of the nature of linguistic interactions. There is, of course, a wealth of linguistics literature in this area; Heydon (2011), for example, brings a conversation analysis approach into the field to describe the control a police interviewer exhibits over interview topics. In this chapter, we wish to give a demonstration of how research originating in the linguistic paradigm can enrich research into the police interview and in particular into the categorization of questions during forensic communication per se. As will be demonstrated, this requires a switch of focus from the ‘words’ used by interviews to the ‘function’ of conversational turns within interviews.
Deceiving suspects about the content of their alibis: Consequences for truthful and untruthful suspects.
Sauerland, Melanie, et.al.
Journal of Forensic Practice, Vol 18(2), 2016. pp. 143-154.
Abstract:
Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to test how modifying one’s alibi statement interacts with exposure to deceptive interrogation techniques. Design/methodology/approach: In all, 90 participants walked about a university building for 15 minutes and either stole an envelope from a staff pigeonhole (guilty condition) or put the envelope there along the way (innocent condition). Subsequently, participants were asked to provide an alibi for the past 15 minutes. Guilty and half of the innocent participants were instructed to omit that they had been in the vicinity of the pigeonholes. The rest of the innocent participants were asked to tell the truth. Several days later, participants were questioned about six statements taken from their alibis, three of which contained altered information. Findings: As expected, participants were largely blind to our alterations, with detection rates ranging from 1 to 36 percent. Contrary to cognitive load predictions, detection rates did not vary as a function of truthfulness. Rather, guilty participants were less likely to detect alterations than innocents. Research limitations/implications: Memory distrust and guilty suspects’ aim to keep a low profile might be possible explanations for these findings. Practical implications: It is recommended that law enforcement officers and other legal practitioners refrain from using deceptive interrogation techniques and such techniques that can cause inconsistencies in suspects’ reports. Researcher should make it their task to educate these professional groups about the natural occurrence of memory related, non-deceptive inconsistencies in successive statements. Originality/value: This research uses a new methodology to study the effect of deceptive interrogation techniques on both innocent and guilty suspects. The findings are relevant for legal practitioners and researchers.
One way or another? Criminal investigators’ beliefs regarding the disclosure of evidence in interviews with suspects in England and Wales.
Walsh, Dave, Milne, Becky, and Bull, Ray.
Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, Vol 31(2), Jun, 2016. pp. 127-140.
Abstract:
The research base concerning interviews with suspects remains to be comprehensively developed. For example, the extant literature provides differing views regarding how best to undertake the important interview task of disclosing evidence. In the current study, using a self-report questionnaire, 224 investigators based in England and Wales were asked as to their own preferred methods. Most respondents advocated a gradual method of disclosing evidence, stating that this approach would better reveal inconsistencies and obtain a complete version of events (similar to the reasoning of those who preferred disclosing evidence later). Those who advocated revealing evidence early stated this approach would more likely elicit confessions. Several respondents would not commit to one single method, arguing that their chosen strategy was contextually dependent. The study’s findings suggest that it remains arguable as to whether there is one best approach to evidence disclosure and/or whether particular circumstances should influence interviewing strategies.
The dynamic nature of interrogation.
Kelly, Christopher E., et.al.
Law and Human Behavior, Vol 40(3), Jun, 2016. pp. 295-309.
Abstract:
Building on a substantial body of literature examining interrogation methods employed by police investigators and their relationship to suspect behaviors, we analyzed a sample of audio and video interrogation recordings of individuals suspected of serious violent crimes. Existing survey research has focused on the tactics reportedly used, at what rate, and under what conditions; observational studies detail which methods are actually employed. With a few notable exceptions, these foundational studies were static examinations of interrogation methods that documented the absence or presence of various approaches. In the present study, we cast interrogation as a dynamic phenomenon and code the recordings in 5-min intervals to examine how interrogation methods and suspect cooperation change over time. Employing the interrogation taxonomy framework, particularly 4 discrete domains—rapport and relationship building, emotion provocation, presentation of evidence, and confrontation/competition—we found that the emphasis of the domains varied across interrogations and were significantly different when suspects confessed versus when they denied involvement. In regression models, suspect cooperation was positively influenced by the rapport and relationship building domain, though it was negatively impacted by presentation of evidence and confrontation/competition. Moreover, we found that the negative effects of confrontation/competition on suspect cooperation lasted for up to 15 min. The implications of the findings for practice and future research include the benefits of a rapport-based approach, the deleterious effects of accusatorial methods, and the importance of studying when, not just if, certain interrogation techniques are employed.
Strategic disclosure of evidence: Perspectives from psychology and law.
Sukumar, Divya, et.al.
Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, Vol 22(3), Aug, 2016. pp. 306-313.
Abstract:
The police frequently present their evidence to suspects in investigative interviews. Accordingly, psychologists have developed strategic ways in which the police may present evidence to catch suspects lying or to elicit more information from suspects. While research in psychology continues to illustrate the effectiveness of strategic evidence disclosure tactics in lie detection, lawyers and legal research challenge these very tactics as undermining fair trial defense rights. Legal research is alive to the problems associated with strategically disclosing evidence to a suspect, such as preventing lawyers from advising the suspect effectively, increasing custodial pressure for the suspect, and worsening working relations between lawyers and police. This paper brings together the opposing research and arguments from the 2 disciplines of psychology and law, and suggests a new way forward for future research and policy on how the police should disclose evidence.
Which lie detection tools are ready for use in the criminal justice system?
Vrij, Aldert and Fisher, Ronald P.
Abstract:
We introduce ‘arousal based’ lie detection tools (the Behavior Analysis Interview, the Comparison Question polygraph Test, CQT) and ‘cognition based’ lie detection tools (imposing cognitive load, encouraging interviewees to say more, asking unexpected questions, Strategic Use of Evidence, Verifiability Approach and Concealed Information polygraph Test, CIT), and discuss whether they are ready for use in investigative interviews. We developed ten criteria on which to judge their suitability. The two arousal-based techniques (frequently used) fall short on numerous criteria. There are too many problems associated with the imposing cognitive load technique, but the other cognitive techniques are ready for use (encouraging interviewees to say more and Strategic Use of Evidence) or ready for use if they continue to receive support in empirical research (asking unexpected questions and Verifiability Approach). The CIT polygraph test cannot be included in a standard investigative interview but can be useful in addition to investigative interviewing.
Emotional intelligence in police interviews—Approach, training and the usefulness of the concept.
Risan, Patrick, et.al.
Journal of Forensic Psychology Practice, Vol 16(5), Oct, 2016. pp. 410-424.
Abstract:
In police investigative interviews, investigators may encounter interviewees who are experiencing a wide range of emotional states that must be accommodated and managed to elicit information about a given event. The aim of this study was to explore how the theoretical concept of emotional intelligence may be of value in describing investigators’ management of emotion in interviews. First, we define emotional intelligence in the context of investigative interviewing, emphasizing empathy and emotion regulation. Then, we present four key considerations for training interviewers in managing emotions. The implications of implementing the concept of emotional intelligence in investigative interviewing are discussed.
‘Blind’ interviewing: Is ignorance bliss?
Rivard, Jillian R., et.al.
Memory, Vol 24(9), Oct, 2016. pp. 1256-1266.
Abstract:
Current investigative interviewing guidelines [e.g., Technical Working Group: Eyewitness evidence. (1999). Eyewitness evidence: A guide for law enforcement. U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice. Retrieved from https://www-ncjrs-gov.ezproxy2.library.arizona.edu/pdffiles1/nij/178240.pdf] suggest that interviewers review available case information prior to conducting a witness interview. The present study investigated the effect of interviewers’ pre-interview awareness of crime details on eyewitnesses’ memory and interviewer behaviour shortly after a mock crime or a week later. Results indicate that blind interviewers with no knowledge about the crime elicited more correct information than those who were correctly informed about the crime. Differences in interviewer behaviour emerged only in the very first question of the interview: Blind interviewers were more likely to begin the interview with a non-suggestive question than the informed interviewers. Blind interviewers also recalled more details than the informed interviewers when asked to generate a report after the witness interview documenting the witness’ account.
Want a better criminal justice response to rape? Improve police interviews with complainants and suspects.
Westera, Nina J., et.al.
Violence Against Women, Vol 22(14), Dec, 2016. pp. 1748-1769.
Abstract:
Achieving just outcomes in rape cases is difficult, but there are ways we can improve the investigation and prosecution of these crimes, now. We outline how targeting variables, within control of the criminal justice system, can improve the quality of information police obtain from interviews with complainants and suspects. We explore how, by preserving these accounts on video, the criminal justice process can better use this information to improve effective decision making from investigation through to criminal trial through to prevention.
Evaluating interviews which search for the truth with suspects: But are investigators’ self-assessments of their own skills truthful ones?
Walsh, Dave, et.al.
Psychology, Crime & Law, Vol 23(7), Aug, 2017. pp. 647-665.
Abstract:
Self-evaluation of one’s own performance has been found in prior research to be an enabler of professional development. The task of evaluation is also a core component of a model of the investigative interviewing of victims, witnesses and suspects, being increasingly used throughout the world. However, it remains the case that there has been little research as to how practitioners approach the task itself. The present study examined the topic through the lens of observing how effectively 30 real-life investigators in the UK undertook evaluation of their interviews, representing almost the entire investigative frontline workforce of a small law enforcement agency in this country. Using an established scale of measurement, both investigators’ and an expert’s ratings of the same sample of interviews were compared across a range of tasks and behaviours. It was found that in almost all the assessed behaviours, requiring of the investigators to provide a self-rating, their scores tended to significantly outstrip those applied to the sample by the expert. Reasons are explored for the investigators’ overstated assessments. Implications for practice are then discussed.
Gathering human intelligence via repeated interviewing: Further empirical tests of the Scharff technique.
Oleszkiewicz, Simon, et.al.
Psychology, Crime & Law, Vol 23(7), Aug, 2017. pp. 666-681.
Abstract:
Research on investigative interviewing has only recently started to compare the efficacy of different techniques for gathering intelligence from human sources. So far the research has focused exclusively on sources interviewed once, thus overlooking that most sources are interviewed multiple times. The present study attempts to remedy this gap in the literature. Students (N = 66) took on the role of semi-cooperative sources, holding incomplete information about an upcoming terrorist attack. The sources were informed that they would be interviewed at least once, and that additional interviews might follow. Half of the sources were interviewed on three occasions with the Scharff technique (consisting of five tactics), and the other half was interviewed on three occasions using the so-called direct approach (i.e. open-ended and specific questions). Collapsing the outcome over the three interviews, the Scharff technique resulted in significantly more new information compared to the direct approach. Furthermore, sources interviewed by the direct approach overestimated how much new information they had revealed, whereas the sources interviewed by the Scharff technique underestimated their contribution (although not significantly so). The current study advances previous research by further contextualizing the tests of the efficacy of human intelligence gathering techniques.
False confessions.
Kassin, Saul M.
WIREs Cognitive Science, Vol 8(6), Nov-Dec, 2017. pp. 1-11. ArtID: e1439
Abstract:
As illustrated by numerous cases in recent years, DNA exonerations of innocent individuals have cast a spotlight on the counterintuitive problem of false confessions. Studying the underlying psychology scientists have found that (1) innocent people are often targeted for interrogation because police make erroneous but confident judgments of deception; (2) certain interrogation techniques—namely, lengthy sessions, presentations of false evidence, and minimization themes that imply leniency—increase the risk that innocent people will confess; (3) certain individuals are particularly vulnerable to influence—notably, those with mental health problems or intellectual impairments, which render them overly compliant or suggestible, and children and adolescents, who exhibit ‘immaturity of judgment’; (4) confession evidence is highly persuasive in court as a matter of common sense, increasing perceptions of guilt, even among judges and juries who see the confession as coerced, and even at times when the confession is contradicted by exculpatory information; (5) Miranda rights to silence and to counsel are not sufficiently protective, so proposals for reform have centered on the mandatory recording of interrogations, from start to finish, and a shift toward using investigative interviewing—a less confrontational, less deceptive means of questioning suspects.
Developing an evidence-based perspective on interrogation: A review of the U.S. government’s high-value detainee interrogation group research program.
Meissner, Christian A., et.al.
Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, Vol 23(4), Nov, 2017. Special Issue: Psycho-legal Researchers’ Impact on Policies and Legal Practices: Past and Future. pp. 438-457.
Abstract:
Interrogation practices in the United States have been roundly criticized both for their accusatorial ethos, at times leading to false confessions by the innocent, and for a history of applying physical and psychological coercion in law enforcement, military, and intelligence contexts. Despite decades of psychological research demonstrating the failures of such approaches and despite recent positive advances in countries such as the United Kingdom moving to an information-gathering framework, little change has occurred in the training or practice of U.S. interrogation professionals over the past 50 years. This article describes recent historical events that have led to the development of the first unclassified, government-funded research program on the science of interviewing and interrogation. Since 2010, the High-Value Detainee Interrogation Group (HIG) research program has identified effective approaches for developing cooperation and rapport, eliciting information, challenging inconsistencies by presenting evidence or information strategically, and assessing credibility using cognitive cues and strategic questioning tactics. The program has also examined the influence of culture and language, and has facilitated the translation of research from the laboratory to the field. In this context, we review the significant contributions of psychologists to understanding and developing ethical, legal, and effective interrogation practices, and we describe important future directions for research on investigative interviewing and interrogation.
Building a case: The role of empirically based interviewing techniques in case construction.
Luke, Timothy J. et.al.
Finding the Truth in the Courtroom: Dealing with Deception, Lies, and Memories, 2017.
Abstract:
This chapter provides researchers and practitioners with a suggested lens through which to consider research on investigative interviewing and deception detection, with a particular focus on the question of how to evaluate the effectiveness of various techniques. This lens places special focus on the notion of case construction. Researchers have heretofore neglected the role of interviewing techniques for case construction, and they believe practitioners and researchers alike would benefit from consideration of this crucial aspect of the criminal justice process. The chapter argues that applying the strategic use of evidence technique during the investigative phase is highly viable for case construction. It begins with a review of the psychological research literature on deception detection and on interviewing and interrogation. From there, it describes the new wave of applied research on questioning techniques designed to improve deception detection and information collection. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the state of the science of interviewing, especially with respect to its relevance for case construction.
The Impact of the Reid Technique of Investigative Interviewing on False Confessions and Jury Verdicts.
Freitas, Jaleesa.
Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, Vol 79(3-B)(E), 2018.
Abstract:
The purpose of this research was to examine the impact The Reid Technique of Investigative Interviewing may have had on a suspect’s decision to confess to a crime. Furthermore, this research examined the impact a suspect’s confession may have had on jurors depending on the amount of information those jurors were provided regarding how the confession was obtained by investigators. Research from the organization The Innocence Project has found that false confessions provided by suspects accused of criminal activity is one of the most common ways an innocent person can be convicted of a crime. This study was designed to assess whether a potential juror, member of the general public who met the criteria for being a potential juror (i.e., over the age of 18, United States citizenship, adequately proficient in the English language, and had no history of felony convictions) would change his/her opinion regarding a fictional suspect’s guilt within a scenario depending on the amount of information he/she was provided. Participants were asked to respond to a series of questions regarding their thoughts and opinions to two fictional scenarios. The first scenario contained a limited amount of information regarding a suspect’s confession to crime and the second scenario contained a more descriptive account about what had taken place in the first scenario leading up to the suspect’s confession. Results of the study indicated that overall participants changed their responses to questions asked depending on the amount of information with which they were provided.
Development of the Rapport Scales for Investigative Interviews and Interrogations (RS3i), Interviewee Version.
Duke, Misty C., et.al.
Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, Vol 24(1), Feb, 2018. pp. 64-79.
Abstract:
This article describes the development and psychometric properties of the Rapport Scales for Investigative Interviews and Interrogations, Interviewee Version (RS3i), a multidimensional self-report questionnaire intended to measure interviewees’ experience of rapport in forensic and intelligence interviews. Two studies are described. In Study 1, 80 simulated investigative interviews were conducted regarding a supposed case of domestic terrorism. Afterward, the 80 interviewee participants rated the interviews on rapport-related questionnaire items. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of these ratings was used to construct a 21-item measure, the RS3i, comprising 5 Rapport Scales (Attentiveness, Trust/Respect, Expertise, Cultural Similarity, and Connected Flow) and a sixth scale, Commitment to Communication, that assesses an interviewee’s motivation to be cooperative. In Study 2, another 94 simulated investigative interviews were conducted, after which interviewee participants rated the interview using the RS3i. A CFA of the Study 2 data confirmed the factor structure identified in Study 1. Good internal reliability and construct validity were demonstrated for most RS3i scales. Furthermore, scores on several scales were found to be higher when interviewers used rapport-based tactics and to correlate with the amount of information disclosed by interviewees during questioning. The RS3i can be a useful, psychometrically sound tool for use in rapport research and the training of forensic and intelligence interviewers.
Using specific model statements to elicit information and cues to deceit in information-gathering interviews.
Porter, Cody Normitta, et.al.
Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, Vol 7(1), Mar, 2018. pp. 132-142.
Abstract:
Model Statements are designed to modify an interviewee’s expectation of the amount of details required during an interview. This study examined tailored Model Statements, emphasising either spatial (Spatial-MS), or temporal (Temporal-MS) details, compared to a control condition (no-MS). Participants (63 liars, 63 truth-tellers) were randomly allocated to one of three interviewing conditions. Truth-tellers honestly reported a spy mission, whereas liars performed a covert mission and lied about their activities. The Spatial-MS elicited more spatial details than the control, particularly for truth-tellers. The Temporal-MS elicited more temporal details than the control, for truth-tellers and liars combined. Results indicate that the composition of different Model Statements increases the amount of details provided and, regarding spatial details, affects truth-teller’s and liar’s statements differently. Thus, Model Statements can be constructed to elicit information and magnify cues to deceit.
Qualitative analysis of qualitative evaluation: An exploratory examination of investigative interviewers’ reflections on their performance.
Griffiths, Andrew and Walsh, David.
Psychology, Crime & Law, Vol 24(4), May, 2018. pp. 433-450.
Abstract:
Self-evaluation of interviews conducted by law enforcement professionals is a principal feature of a prescribed interview framework in England and Wales, underpinning their practice development. However, self-evaluation has been found in prior research to be neglected. Building on our recent study (which found that interviewers regularly over-rated themselves, when compared to our independent ratings), the same interviewers assessed their interview skills by way of completing an extensive reflective log. We found that those we regarded as skilled in our prior study tended to be more accurate in identifying their strengths and areas for improvement, while planning to correct such shortfalls in their future practice. On the other hand, those we had earlier rated as least skilled tended to be much less reflective, being both descriptive and inaccurate in their understanding of key interview tasks. They also remained inaccurate concerning their own interview skills, failing to be prospective in planning to improve their skills. As such, while reflective logs appear to be, for skilled interviewers, both a prompt for accurate self-assessment and a catalyst for planning further professional development, we also caution that such tools need further refinement to achieve the same goals for those either less reflective or less skilled.
Planning ahead? An exploratory study of South Korean investigators’ beliefs about their planning for investigative interviews of suspects.
Kim, Jihwan, et.al.
Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, Vol 33(2), Jun, 2018. pp. 158-174.
Abstract:
Preparation and planning has been argued to be vitally important as to how effectively investigators undertake their interviews with suspects. Yet, it has also been found in previous research that investigators admit that they plan only occasionally, often attributing insufficient time as a reason for not undertaking the task. Employing a novel research paradigm that utilised theoretical foundations concerning planning, the present study explored empirically 95 South Korean financial crime investigators’ views, using a self-administered questionnaire. With the use of second-generation statistical modelling, an understanding was developed of the relative relationships between various concepts (which had themselves emerged from an established theoretical framework of planning that had been further extended to accommodate the context of the present study). The study found that perceived time pressures actually showed a very low association with interview planning. Rather, investigators’ self-belief as to their own capability alongside workplace culture was each found to have stronger associations with investigators’ intentions to plan for their interviews. As such, we argue that there should be more focus on improving occupational culture relating to interview planning, while developing training programs that identify, evaluate, and enhance investigators’ planning skills. Implications for practice are therefore discussed.
The combined effects of questioning technique and interviewer manner on false confessions.
Paton, Wendy, et.al.
Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, Vol 15(3), Oct, 2018. pp. 335-349.
Abstract:
Although it is known that interrogation tactics can elicit false confessions and interviewer manner may determine the outcome of an interview, the combined effects of questioning technique and interviewer manner on false confessions have not been examined empirically. Following a false accusation of theft, participants were interviewed in one of four questioning conditions (minimisation, repetitive questioning, leading questions, and nonleading questions) in which interviewers adopted a stern or friendly manner. Perceptions of pressure to confess and interviewer behaviours were measured. Significantly more false confessions were elicited using nonleading questions rather than repetitive questioning. More false confessions were elicited in the friendly interviewer condition than in the stern interviewer condition. Neither interviewer manner nor questioning technique had a significant effect on subjective ratings of pressure to confess. The finding that false confessions may be elicited in the absence of coercive tactics may have implications for informing best practices in investigative interviewing.
It takes two: The round-robin methodology for investigative interviewing research.Open Access
Hudson, Charlotte A., et.al.
Frontiers in Psychology, Vol 9, Nov 13, 2018. ArtID: 2181
Abstract:
Investigative interviews are complex, dyadic, and social interactions typically studied by evaluating interviewers’ questioning strategies. In field settings, interviewers naturally vary in their interviewing practice. Thus, it is important to conduct research reflective of idiosyncrasies in witnesses, interviewers, and the resulting unique pairings. This study explored sources of variation in an interview by using a ’round-robin’ design. Each session of the study involved five witnesses observing five separate events. Witnesses were then simultaneously, but independently interviewed by four different interviewers, or completed a self-administered written interview. This sequence was repeated until each witness had seen every event and had been interviewed by each interviewer. Over nine sessions (N = 45) this produced 225 total interviews. Individual interview performance (accuracy and level of detail) as well as experience (subjective ratings) were then analyzed in relation to the typical performance of the interviewer, the witness, the event, and the unique paring. We found that witnesses and interviewers could have an effect on statement quality; however, the unique interview experience variance had the greatest influence on interview performance. This study presents the round-robin methodology as a useful tool to study realistic variation in interviewer, witness, and dyad behavior.
Enhancing cooperation and disclosure by manipulating affiliation and developing rapport in investigative interviews.
Brimbal, Laure, et.al.
Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, Vol 25(2), May, 2019. pp. 107-115.
Abstract:
We sought to identify motivations to resist cooperation in intelligence interviews and develop techniques to overcome this resistance. One source of resistance can arise because of concerns for affiliations (e.g., ‘I do not want to inform on my friends/family/fellow countryman’). We investigated two avenues of rapport building—approach and avoidance—designed to overcome this concern. In a modified cheating paradigm, our participants (N = 116) became affiliated with a confederate who they then witnessed cheating. Participants were interviewed about the event in a 2 (approach: present vs. absent) × 2 (avoid: present vs. absent) design. The interviewer used either an approach technique that aligned them with the interviewer (portrayed as a morally good person) or an avoid technique that moved them away from the culprit (portrayed as nefarious), neither, or both. The approach technique increased rapport between the interviewer and participant. However, the avoid technique decreased the amount information elicited. When submitted to a mediation model, the approach technique had a positive indirect effect on information yield via perceived rapport and cooperation, while this was not the case for the avoid technique. An exploratory moderator analysis revealed that sympathy for the confederate moderated the effect of the avoid technique on information disclosed, where the more sympathy a participant felt for the confederate, the less information he or she provided. Implications for interviewing are discussed.
Who said what and when? A timeline approach to eliciting information and intelligence about conversations, plots, and plans.
Hope, Lorraine, et.al.
Law and Human Behavior, Vol 43(3), Jun, 2019. pp. 263-277.
Abstract:
The verbal content of interactions (what was said and who said what) can be important as evidence and intelligence information. Across 3 empirical studies, we examined memory for details of an overheard (Experiment 1) or witnessed (Experiments 2 and 3) conversation using a timeline technique adapted for the reporting of conversations between multiple speakers. Although participants in all conditions received the same general instructions, participants assigned to timeline reporting format reported more verbatim information and made fewer sequencing errors than those using a free recall format. In Experiments 2 and 3, using an extended version of the technique, participants using the timeline reporting format also reported more correct speaker attributions and provided more information about the individuals involved, without compromising overall accuracy rates. With a large effect size across experiments (total N = 134), these findings suggest that timeline reporting formats facilitate the reporting of episodic memories and benefit the reporting of conversations.
‘I think you did it!’: Examining the effect of presuming guilt on the verbal output of innocent suspects during brief interviews.
Portnoy, Shiri, et.al.
Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, Vol 16(3), Oct, 2019. pp. 236-250.
Abstract:
Innocent suspects interviewed by a guilt‐presumptive versus innocence‐presumptive or neutral interviewer may tend more to display non‐verbal behaviours which neutral judges consider indicative of guilt. We examined the effects of interviewer’s presumption of guilt on innocent mock suspects’ alibis. Participants (N = 90) provided an alibi to convince an interviewer of their innocence of a theft after she implied that she believed that they were guilty or innocent or that she had no belief about their veracity. On the basis of existing conflicting findings for suspects’ verbal behaviour during accusatory interviews, we predicted that alibis in the guilt‐belief condition would contain the highest or lowest number of correct details with overall higher or poorer accuracy rates, respectively. Although participants perceived the interviewer’s presumptive approach, the number of correct details provided and accuracy rates of alibis did not differ significantly between conditions. We propose explanations to these findings and future research paths.
Trial of three investigative interview techniques with minimally verbal adults reporting about occurrences of a staged repeated event.
Bearman, Madeleine, et.al.
Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, Vol 25(4), Nov, 2019. pp. 239-252.
Abstract:
The current study explored the effectiveness of three interview protocols on the number and specificity of details provided by minimally verbal adults about a staged repeated event. Eighty adults (with expressive sentence length of around 5 words, matched on measures of expressive language and intellectual functioning) participated in 3 live events and were pseudorandomly assigned to receive 1 of 3 interviews. The narrative-first protocol exhausted recall with open-ended questions before focused questions were asked, the intermixed protocol paired open-ended questions immediately followed by related focused questions, and the visual cues protocol mimicked the narrative-first protocol but with the use of cue cards. Overall, participants reported more correct information about the last occurrence in the intermixed and visual than narrative-first interview. The narrative-first interview elicited fewer internal intrusions (experienced details attributed to the wrong occurrence) compared with the visual, but not the intermixed, interview. Expressive language and intellectual function were positively associated with the reporting of event-related details. Providing information about repeated events was challenging for minimally verbal adults; reporting of generic event details was more frequent than occurrence-specific details, one third of participants answered a question about event frequency incorrectly (by saying they participated once), and the remaining participants provided few details about the other occurrences when directed to do so. Findings were consistent with the broader repeated event literature on children and adult witnesses recalling repeated events. This research provides guidance for investigative interviewers on how best to obtain accurate event-related information from minimally verbal adults about their experiences.
Rapport building in suspect interviewing: A comparison of relationship- and procedure-based approaches in a laboratory setting.
Huang, Kuan-Ju and Teoh, Yee-San.
Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, Vol 25(4), Nov, 2019. pp. 253-265.
Abstract:
Both researchers and practitioners have stressed the importance of developing rapport in the investigative interviewing of criminal suspects. There is, however, no clear definition of what constitutes rapport and ways of achieving and maintaining rapport. Most research on rapport building with suspects have focused on a positive personal bond between the investigator and suspect (i.e., relationship-based approach), while more recent research suggests the merits of a neutral type of rapport building that focuses on developing a mutual understanding of the interrogation process and roles (i.e., procedure-based approach). The present study thus aimed to examine the effects of relationship- and procedure-based rapport building approaches on suspect interviewing outcome. Using a modified version of Russano, Meissner, Narchet, and Kassin’s (2005) cheating paradigm, ‘guilty’ participants were interviewed using different rapport building approaches in a laboratory setting. We found that participants were more likely to confess in the procedure-based condition than in the relationship-based and control conditions. However, both approaches did not have an effect on the number of details participants were willing to disclose. We also found that the procedure-based approach affected participants’ perception about the evidence. Theoretical and practical implications for rapport building in suspect interviewing are discussed.
Using the Reality Interview improves the accuracy of the Criteria‐Based Content Analysis and Reality Monitoring.Open Access
Bogaard, Glynis, et.al.
Applied Cognitive Psychology, Vol 33(6), Nov-Dec, 2019. pp. 1018-1031.
Abstract:
Active interviewing approaches can exploit the verbal differences between truthtellers and liars, thus improving detecting deception. One such method is the Reality Interview (RI) aimed to facilitate recall from truthtellers, while increasing the difficulty for liars. This study investigated whether the RI could improve the diagnostic accuracy of the Reality Monitoring and the Criteria‐Based Content Analysis. Liars and truthtellers were either asked to freely recall an event or interviewed with the RI. As hypothesized, the RI improved the discriminability of Reality Monitoring and Criteria‐Based Content Analysis over Free Recall. Honest responses were longer, and the RI increased the word count difference between honest and false statements. However, after correcting for word count, results were no longer significant, showing its importance for deception detection. Nonetheless, the RI increased verbal differences between truthtellers and liars, demonstrating that using the RI with verbal credibility assessment tools is a powerful combination for investigative interviewing.
Challenges of a ‘toolbox’ approach to investigative interviewing: A critical analysis of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police’s (RCMP) Phased Interview Model.
Snook, Brent, et.al.
Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, Vol 26(3), Aug, 2020. pp. 261-273.
Abstract:
The Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) implemented the Phased Interview Model in Canada and has argued that it is a novel and productive way to interview suspects. We applaud the RCMP for moving away from an accusatorial approach and recognize that the Phased Interview Model contains several science-based practices. In this article, however, we evaluate the Phased Interview Model critically. In particular, we present compelling empirical evidence that 3 fundamental practices (minimizing culpability, mischaracterizing evidence, and asking leading questions) in the Phased Interview Model put the truth-seeking function of police interviews at risk. We also explore the challenges inherent in combining accusatorial and information gathering techniques into a hybrid toolbox approach. We conclude that advocating for an interview protocol that contains dangerous or untested practices may hinder the RCMP’s ability to achieve their purported goals of obtaining voluntary statements and accurate information.
How guilty and innocent suspects perceive the police and themselves: Suspect interviews in germany.
May, Lennart, et.al.
Legal and Criminological Psychology, Oct 19, 2020.
Abstract:
Purpose Suspects are central participants of a police interview and can provide crucial information on the interview interactions with the interviewers. This study examined how the way suspects perceive interviews relates to (a) their reported status of being guilty or innocent and (b) their decision to confess or deny. Methods A total of 250 convicted offenders completed a two‐part questionnaire on their perceptions during the most recent suspect interview in which they had confessed to or denied a crime they had committed (Part 1) or not committed (Part 2). Results Participants reported a total of 334 police interviews – 223 for which they reported being guilty and 111 for which they reported being innocent. An exploratory factor analysis showed that three latent factors described how they viewed the interviewers and themselves: Respectful‐Open Behaviors (non‐accusatorial interviewer behaviour, and no pressure in suspects), Confession‐Oriented Tactics by the interviewer (minimization and maximization tactics), and Suspects’ Psychological Distress (insecurity, fear, and lack of self‐confidence). Suspects perceived less Psychological Distress and less Respectful‐Open Behaviors in reported innocent (vs. guilty) interview situations. In reported guilty interview situations, confessions were associated positively with Respectful‐Open Behaviors and Suspects’ Psychological Distress, whereas denials were associated positively with Confession‐Oriented Tactics. Innocent interview situations showed a positive correlation between confessions and Suspects’ Psychological Distress. Conclusions In this study, suspects deliver an important message to the police and the legal system: The findings substantiate the benefits of an open‐minded interviewing approach, and fail to support a confession‐oriented interrogation approach.
A meta‐analytic review of the self‐administered interview©: Quantity and accuracy of details reported on initial and subsequent retrieval attempts.
Horry, Ruth, et.al.
Applied Cognitive Psychology, Nov 5, 2020.
Abstract:
The Self‐Administered Interview (SAI©) is designed to elicit detailed witness reports in the aftermath of incidents. In two sets of meta‐analyses, we compared the number of correct details reported, the number of incorrect details reported, and the accuracy of reports provided by witnesses in initial reports (SAI© vs. other reporting formats) and in subsequent accounts (initial SAI© vs. no initial SAI©). The number of comparisons ranged from 15 to 19, (N = 722 to 977). For initial accounts, the SAI© was associated with more correct details and more incorrect details than other reporting formats; accuracy was slightly lower for the SAI© than for other reporting formats. Subsequent accounts were more detailed and accurate for witnesses who had completed an initial SAI© than for those who had not. The SAI© is an effective tool for capturing detailed initial accounts and for preserving witness memory until a formal interview can be conducted.
A meta‐analytic review of the timing for disclosing evidence when interviewing suspects.
Oleszkiewicz, Simon and Watson, Steven J.
Applied Cognitive Psychology, Dec 8, 2020.
Abstract:
This meta‐analytic review examines the most fundamental question for disclosing evidence during suspect interviews: What are the effective options for when to disclose the available evidence? We provide an update to Hartwig and colleagues (2014) meta‐analysis of the efficacy of the late and early disclosure methods on eliciting statement‐evidence inconsistencies from guilty and innocent suspects. We also extend these analyses to include studies comparing gradual disclosure to early and late disclosure when interviewing guilty suspects. Finally, we test whether a gradual disclosure leads to greater provision of novel investigative information when interviewing guilty suspects. Overall, we find that guilty suspects provide more statement‐evidence inconsistencies than innocent suspects, and that both a late and gradual disclosure result in more statement‐evidence inconsistencies than the early disclosure when interviewing guilty suspects. However, there are indications of small study effects that warrant considerable caution when interpreting the size of some of the identified effects.
Assessing the diagnosticity of a persuasion-based and a dialogue-based interrogation approach.
Eastwood, Joseph, et.al.
Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, Oct 20, 2020.
Abstract:
The current study assessed the relative propensity of a persuasion-based and a dialogue-based interrogation approach to generate true and false confessions (i.e., their diagnosticity). Following the Russano cheating paradigm, participants were first either induced or not induced to cheat on an experimental task to create innocent and guilty conditions. An experimenter, blind to the participants’ guilt or innocence, then attempted to generate a confession using a persuasion-based or a dialogue-based interrogation approach. Chi-square analyses showed that both interrogation approaches generated an equally high proportion of true confessions from guilty participants (95% for both approaches; p = 0.942) but that the persuasion-based approach generated substantially more false confessions from innocent participants than the dialogue-based approach (45% vs. 0%, respectively; p = 0.001). The dialogue-based approach’s clear advantage over the persuasion-based approach in this study adds to the call for law enforcement organizations to utilize dialogue-based approaches within real-world interrogations.