Intimate Partner Violence and Sexual Assault

Breiding MJ, Basile KC, Smith SG, Black MC, Mahendra RR. Intimate Partner Violence Surveillance: Uniform Definitions and Recommended Data Elements, Version 2.0. Atlanta (GA): National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2015.

Associations between coerced anal sex and psychopathology, marital distress and non-sexual violence.
Mohammadkhani, Parvaneh, et.al.
Journal of Sexual Medicine, Vol 6(7), Jul, 2009. pp. 1938-1946.
Abstract:
Background. There is a dearth of scientific data on anal intercourse in heterosexual relationships. Likewise, anal sex within marital relationships has yet to be fully explored. Objectives. Among a representative sample of married women in the Iranian capital, Tehran, we aimed to determine the association of self-reported coerced anal sex with: (i) self-reported coerced vaginal sex; (ii) self-reported nonsexual violence; (iii) psychopathology; and (iv) marital attitude. Method. The data presented here were obtained from the Family Violence Survey conducted in Tehran in 2007. A total of 230 married Iranian women were selected via a multi-cluster sampling method from four different randomized regions. The subjects’ sociodemographic data, psychological distress (Symptom Check List; SCL-90-R), personality, and relationship characteristics (Personal and Relationships Profile), and marital attitude (Marital Attitude Survey) were gathered. In addition, the participants’ self-reported histories of lifetime victimization through all types of violence by the husband, including coerced anal and vaginal sex as well as psychological and physical assault (Conflict Tactic Scales-Revised; CTS-2), were collected. Results. There were associations between self-reported victimization through coerced anal and vaginal sex (P < 0.001), psychological (P < 0.001), and physical aggression (P < 0.001). Those reporting to have been forced into anal intercourse cited higher rates of paranoid and psychotic features, jealousy, attribution of problems to one’s own behavior, conflict, and male dominance, as well as lower expectations of improvement in one’s marital relationship. Conclusion. In marital relationships, women are at a higher risk of coerced anal sex if subjected to other types of sexual or non-sexual violence. Higher rates of psychopathology and poorer marital relationships are also allied to self-reported anal sexual coercion.

Factors related to sexual abuse and forced sex in a sample of women experiencing police-involved intimate partner violence.
Messing, Jill Theresa, Thaller, Jonel, Bagwell, Meredith.
Health & Social Work, Vol 39(3), Aug, 2014. pp. 181-191.
Abstract:
Intimate partner sexual violence (IPSV) is a significant social problem, particularly among women who are concurrently experiencing physical violence in their intimate relationships. This research examined the prevalence and factors associated with IPSV among a sample of women recruited at the scene of police-involved intimate partner violence incidents (N = 432). Within this sample, 43.98 percent of participants reported experiencing IPSV; this includes 17.36 percent who reported sexual abuse and 26.62 percent who reported forced sex. Multinomial logistic regression was used to examine the factors related to sexual abuse and forced sex, controlling for victim and relationship characteristics. Compared with women not reporting IPSV, women who were sexually abused or forced into sexual intercourse were significantly more likely to experience strangulation, feelings of shame, and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms.  Women whose partners had forced sex were more likely to report that they had a child in common with their abusive partner; and that their partner was sexually jealous, had threatened to kill them, had stalked or harassed them, or caused them to have a miscarriage due to abuse. These findings can be used to better inform social work practitioners about the prevalence and nature of IPSV and the associated risk factors, and can assist in routine screening and intervention.

Intimate partner violence perpetration by court-ordered men: Distinctions among subtypes of physical violence, sexual violence, psychological abuse, and stalking.
Hall, Jeffrey E., Walters, Mikel L., Basile, Kathleen C.
Journal of Interpersonal Violence, Vol 27(7), May, 2012. pp. 1374-1395.
Abstract:
This study continues previous work documenting the structure of violence perpetrated by males against their female intimate partners. It assesses the construct validity of a measurement model depicting associations among eight subtypes of perpetration: moderate physical violence, severe physical violence, forced or coerced sexual violence, sexual violence where consent was not possible, emotional/verbal psychological abuse, dominance/isolation psychological abuse, interactional contacts/surveillance related stalking, and stalking involving mediated contacts. Data were obtained from a sample of 340 men arrested for physical assault of a female spouse or partner, and court ordered into batterer intervention programs. Men were surveyed before starting the intervention. Confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) supported the validity of model as evidenced by good model to data fit and satisfaction of requirements for fit statistics. In addition, the eight factor solution was characterized by a slightly better model to data fit than a four factor higher order solution described in the author’s previous work. Latent variable correlations across the broader categories of intimate partner violence (IPV) revealed that the violencesubtypes were mostly moderately positively correlated and ranged from .381 (emotional/verbal psychological abuse with interactional contacts/surveillance related stalking) to .795 (dominance/isolation psychological with abuse with forced sex). Future studies should determine whether there are distinct risk factors and health outcomes associated with each of the eight IPV perpetration subtypes and identify possible patterns of co-occurrence.

The Reporting of Domestic Violence and Sexual Assault by Nonstrangers to the Police.
Felson, Richard B., Paré, Paul-Philippe.
Journal of Marriage and Family, Vol 67(3), Aug, 2005. pp. 597-610.
Abstract:
We examine the effects of the gender of the victim and offender and their relationship to each other on whether sexual and physical assaults are reported to the police. We also examine the reasons victims give for not reporting assaults and whether reporting patterns have changed over time. The analyses are based on a sample of 6,291 physical assaults and 1,787 sexual assaults from the National Violence Against Women Survey. The results suggest that victims are just as likely to report domestic assaults as they are to report assaults by other people they know. Male victims are particularly reluctant to report assaults by their intimate partners, whereas third parties are particularly unlikely to report assaults by partners of either gender. Sexual assaults, particularly those that involve acquaintances, are less likely to be reported. These patterns have not changed since the 1960s.

Health behavior in adolescent women reporting and not reporting intimate partner violence.
Hanson, Monica J.
Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic, & Neonatal Nursing: Clinical Scholarship for the Care of Women, Childbearing Families, & Newborns, Vol 39(3), May-Jun, 2010. pp. 263-276.
Abstract:
Objective: To determine similarities and differences between adolescent women reporting intimate partner violence (IPV) and/or forcedsexual intercourse (FSI) and those not reporting these experiences on a series of health-enhancing and health-compromising behaviors. Design and Setting: Secondary analysis of the 2001 Youth Risk Behavior Survey conducted in high schools throughout the United States. Participants: One thousand six hundred and eight female students among whom 450 reported no IPV or FSI, 457 reported IPV, 473 reported FSI, and 228 reported experiencing IPV and FSI. Methods: Descriptive statistics and discriminant function analysis. Results: Statistical analyses revealed that the groups of adolescent women experiencing IPV and FSI were more alike than disparate, so groups were combined for further analysis. Results reveal that adolescent women reporting IPV and FSI are more likely to participate in health-compromising behaviors and less likely to participate in health-enhancing behaviors. Conclusion: Adolescent women reporting either IPV or forced sex are more likely to be engaging in risky behaviors and less likely to be engaged in health-enhancing behaviors. These findings have important implications for health care professionals who care for adolescent women.

Forced sex and intimate partner violence: Effects on women’s risk and women’s health.
Campbell, Jacquelyn C.
Violence Against Women, Vol 5(9), Sep, 1999. Wife rape. pp.
Abstract:
Investigated whether forced sex would have a negative effect on women’s self-esteem and health status, above and beyond the physical and emotional abuse. A volunteer community sample of 159 battered women (mean age 31.6 yrs; 77% African American) were interviewed about forced sex by their partner (or ex-partner). Results show that 45.9% of the sample had been sexually assaulted as well as physically abused. Except for ethnicity, there were no demographic differences between those who were forced into sex and those who were not, and there was no difference in history of child sexual abuse. However, those who were sexually assaulted had higher scores on negative health symptoms, gynecological symptoms, and risk factors for homicide even when controlling for physical abuse and demographic variables. The number of sexual assaults (childhood, rape, and intimate partner) was significantly correlated with depression and body image.

Patterns of partners’ abusive behaviors as reported by Latina and non-Latina survivors.
Glass, Nancy, Perrin, Nancy, Hanson, Ginger, Mankowski, Eric, Bloom, Tina, Campbell, Jacquelyn.
Journal of Community Psychology, Vol 37(2), Mar, 2009. pp. 156-170.
Abstract:
This study builds on the existing knowledge of risk factors for lethal intimate partner violence (IPV) and typologies of IPV abusers by exploring patterns of abusive partners’ behaviors among known risk factors for intimate partner femicide (i.e., murder of women) and determines if groups of survivors with similar patterns of abusive behaviors exist. The common patterns are then examined for differences among Latina and non-Latina survivors. Face-to-face interviews were conducted with adult English- and Spanish-speaking survivors of past-year physical and/or sexual IPV using a validated, risk assessment instrument, the Danger Assessment (DA) Questionnaire. Two-hundred nine IPV survivors participated, 55% Latina. Unique patterns of abusive behaviors perpetrated by an intimate partner or ex-partner across known risk factors for lethal violence were reported. The patterns clustered into five distinct groups: extreme abuser, physical and sexual violence/controlling abuser, forced sex/controlling abuser, threat/controlling abuser, and low-level tactics abuser. Latina and non-Latina survivors reported mean DA scores (13.0 vs. 18.5, respectively) that place them within the “increased danger” and “extreme danger” level, respectively, for lethal violence by an abusive partner. Although both groups were in extreme danger on average, the patterns of abusive behaviors differed. Latina women were more likely to characterize their partner as using forced sex to control the relationship, whereas non-Latina women were more likely to characterize the use of all types of abusive behaviors (i.e., extreme abuser) or threats to kill them (i.e., threat/ controlling abuse?) to control, the relationship. The findings of this study can be used to develop effective individualized safety plans that include culturally and linguistically competent strategies to reduce violence-related morbidity and mortality.

A mixed-methods examination of sexual coercion and degradation among women in violent relationships who do and do not report forced sex.
Logan, T. K., Cole, Jennifer, Shannon, Lisa.  Violence and Victims, Vol 22(1), 2007. pp. 71-94.
Abstract:
Although partner sexual abuse is clearly an important dimension of partner violence, it has received less research attention than partnerphysical and psychological abuse. This article contributes to the literature by examining similarities and differences in coercive and degrading sexual tactics experienced by women who do (n = 31) and women who do not (n = 31) report forced sex using quantitative and qualitative data. The women in the sample had all been recently (within the past 6 months) stalked by a violent intimate partner. Results suggest that both women who do and women who do not report forced sex experience various coercive and degrading tactics within the context of sexual activity. Results also suggest that multiple sexual abuse dimensions should be considered within the context of partnerpsychological abuse, physical abuse, and stalking and that more research on understanding the outcomes associated with dimensions of sexual abuse within the context of physical and psychological abuse is needed.

Intimate partner physical abuse perpetration and victimization risk factors: A meta-analytic review.
Stith, Sandra M., Smith, Douglas B., Penn, Carrie E., Ward, David B., Tritt, Dari.
Aggression and Violent Behavior, Vol 10(1), Nov-Dec, 2004. pp. 65-98.
Abstract:
Evidence from 85 studies was examined to identify risk factors most strongly related to intimate partner physical abuse perpetration and victimization. The studies produced 308 distinct effect sizes. These effect sizes were then used to calculate composite effect sizes for 16 perpetration and 9 victimization risk factors. Large effect sizes were found between perpetration of physical abuse and five risk factors (emotional abuse, forced sex, illicit drug use, attitudes condoning marital violence, and marital satisfaction). Moderate effect sizes were calculated between perpetration of physical abuse and six risk factors (traditional sex-role ideology, anger/hostility, history of partner abuse, alcohol use, depression, and career/life stress). A large effect size was calculated between physical violence victimization and the victim using violence toward her partner. Moderate effect sizes were calculated between female physical violence victimization and depression and fear of future abuse.

Women’s responses to sexual abuse in intimate relationships
Jacquelyn C. Campbell.
Women’s Health Care International, 8, 335-347.
Abstract:
One hundred ninety‐three women having serious problems in an intimate relationship with a man were recruited by newspaper advertisement to participate in this study. Of the 97 battered women, 44.3% also were being sexually abused. Sexual abuse was inversely correlated with body image and self‐esteem scores and positively related to danger of homicide, even when severity and frequency of violence were controlled for. Assessment and interventions for sexual abuse are necessary in all women’s health settings, especially if a woman is battered.

Predictors of depression in battered women.
Campbell, Jacquelyn C., Kub, Joan, Belknap, Ruth Ann, Templin, Thomas N.
Violence Against Women, Vol 3(3), Jun, 1997. pp. 271-293.
Abstract:
The sample for this study consisted of 164 women recruited from newspaper advertisements and bulletin board postings asking for volunteers with serious problems in intimate relationships with men. Women were screened for battering using the Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS). Of 164 battered women, 28% were moderately to severely depressed and 11% were severely depressed on the Beck Depression Inventory. Significant predictors of depression (accounting for 44% of variance) by multivariate analysis were childhood physical abuse, self-care agency, physical abuse by partner, and daily hassles. In addition to these analyses, the influence of self in relationship on depression was examined. Results suggest that physical abuse is an important part of the etiology of depression in battered women and that the abuse in combination with daily hassles supports a stress explanation of depression, with a woman’s ability to take care of herself a protective factor.