Self-blame in Victims of Intimate Partner Violence

Attributions of self-blame and perceived control as moderators of adjustment in battered women.
O’Neill, Melanie L., Hahnemann U, Kerig, Patricia K.
Journal of Interpersonal Violence, Vol 15(10), Oct, 2000. pp. 1036-1049.
Abstract:
Explored the relationship among attributions of self-blame, perceived control, and psychological adjustment in 160 women who experienced physical violence in an intimate relationship. Ss completed ratings of characterological self-blame, behavioral self-blame, perceived control, and adjustment. Ss currently involved with violent partners reported the highest rates of characterological and behavioral self-blame and the lowest level of perceived control. Both dimensions of self-blame were positively correlated with symptoms. Perceived control was associated with lower symptoms. Characterological self-blame, behavioral self-blame, and perceived control moderated the relationship between violence and adjustment. Implications for understanding the process by which self-blame and perceived control moderate psychological adjustment are discussed.

Dysphoria and hopelessness following battering: The role of perceived control, coping, and self-esteem.
Clements, Caroline M., et al.
Journal of Family Violence, Vol 19(1), Feb, 2004. pp. 25-36.
Abstract:
Coping, perceived control, dysphoria, hopelessness, and self-esteem in a sample of 100 battered women were assessed. Participants reported dysphoria and low self-esteem, but not hopelessness. High perceived control over current abuse and greater use of drugs, behavioral disengagement, denial, and self-blame as coping mechanisms were associated with increased dysphoria and low self-esteem. High expectations for control over future abuse were associated with decreased dysphoria and hopelessness and increased self-esteem. After controlling for the effects of abuse severity and low self-esteem, self-blame was a unique contributor to dysphoria and high expectations for control of future abuse were unique contributors to hopelessness. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for clinical intervention with battered women.

Battered Women.
Lundberg-Love, Paula K., Wilkerson, D. Karen.
‘Intimate’ violence against women: When spouses, partners, or lovers attack. Lundberg-Love, Paula K., (Ed); Marmion, Shelly L., (Ed); pp. 31-45; Westport, CT, US: Praeger Publishers/Greenwood Publishing Group; 2006. xii, 235 pp.

This chapter focuses on battering and battered women. After defining the term battering as physical abuse, emotional abuse, and/or sexual abuse, the authors describe the range of behaviors that qualify for battering. The authors outline characteristics of batterers, providing 17 warning signs; they then discuss patterns in violent relationships. Estimates of the incidence and prevalence of battering are provided, and the consequences of battering are discussed. Obstacles battered women face when they attempt to leave include fear, lack of economic resources, and children. The psychological effects associated with battering include learned helplessness, problem-solving and coping deficits, self-blame and depression, and substance abuse. Other effects include trauma, PTSD and Stockholm syndrome. The monetary costs of intimate partner violence to society are described.

The earliest warning signs of intimate partner violence.
Lang, Stephanie C.. Capella U., US
Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, Vol 72(9-B), 2012. pp. 5622.
Abstract:
Despite considerable research on domestic violence (DV) in general, little is known about the very earliest stages of relationships that later become violent. This qualitative, grounded-theory study addresses that knowledge gap by exploring the earliest warning signs of intimate partner violence. It focuses on the time period from when participants first met their partner through one month after the relationship became exclusive–the time period when things usually seem wonderful and the foundation is established for the later relationship. The study included 12 participants (five male perpetrators, six female victims, and one gay male victim), but 16 cases: four participants (three female victims and one male victim) had recoupled into nonviolent relationships and were interviewed about those relationships to provide comparison cases. Participants were recruited from local programs for DV victims and perpetrators; they completed an extensive information packet, primary interviews, and follow-up interviews. The overriding research questions investigated were the following: What do participants perceive were early warning signs of abuse displayed by themselves and their partners? How were these rationalized away early in the relationship? and What do participants believe made them vulnerable to an abusive relationship? Interviews were transcribed, entered into NVivo for analysis, and within- and cross-case analyses were performed. A number of recurring themes were identified, including disrespectful as well as intensely positive behaviors and feelings, and similarities in early emotional, verbal, and sexual experiences. Participants rationalized away the warning signs through self-blame, partner-blame, and redirecting their focus onto seeing the relationship or behavior in the most positive light. The results were distilled into two conclusions. One is the Earliest Warning Signs of Intimate Partner Violence (EWS-IPV) model, which shows how the common EWS themes interact with each other and with the rationalizations and vulnerability or risk factors. The other is that, because warning signs depend so much on intensity and/or context, emotional awareness and being able to trust one’s gut responses are critical in enabling individuals to recognize red flags.

Depressive and posttraumatic symptoms among women seeking protection orders against intimate partners: Relations to coping strategies and perceived responses to abuse disclosure.
Flicker, Sharon M., et al.
Violence Against Women, Vol 18(4), Apr, 2012. pp. 420-436.
Abstract:
This investigation examined the relationship of abuse-specific coping strategies and perceived responses to abuse disclosure to symptoms of depression and posttraumatic stress among 131 women seeking a protection order against an intimate partner. Disengagement, denial, and self-blame coping strategies, as well as blaming of the participant by others, were associated with greater depressive and posttraumatic symptoms. None of the strategies of coping or responses to abuse disclosure were negatively related to depressive or posttraumatic stress symptoms. Findings suggest that mental health providers may find it useful to address these negative styles of coping while public education campaigns should target victim blaming.

Battered women of interpersonal violence psychological issues of shame, guilt, and self-blame.
Ross, Jacqueline R.. Capella U.
Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, Vol 73(9-B)(E), 2013.
Abstract:
This study presents to the mental health profession a different view of how battered women of interpersonal violence shape psychological issues of shame, guilt, and self-blame differently. There are two groups of battered women in this study: Group A: Battered women of intimate partner violence (IPV) who had experienced interpersonal violence as an adult and had a history of interpersonal violence in their nuclear household when growing up. Group B: Battered women of IPV who had experienced interpersonal violence as an adult, but did not have a history of interpersonal violence in their nuclear household when growing up. Little research is available in the areas of how battered women of interpersonal violence shape psychological issues differently when there is a history of childhood violence, and intergenerational transmission of psychological issues into later adult intimate relationships. This disparity in literature inspired the current research study. This study used quantitative methods through the use of preexisting Likert-type scale psychological measurements to measure battered women’s psychological issues of shame, guilt, and self-blame determined by an alpha of .05. The results of this study indicate that battered women in Group A (with childhood history of interpersonal violence) had statistically significantly higher shame-proneness, internalized shame, state shame, guilt-proneness, state guilt, and self blamescale scores than battered women in Group B (without childhood history of interpersonal violence).

Impact of intimate partner violence on women’s mental health.
Karakurt, Gunnur., et al.
Journal of Family Violence, Vol 29(7), Oct, 2014. pp. 693-702.
Abstract:
This study aimed to explore the mental health needs of women residing in domestic violence shelters; more specifically, we aimed to identify commonalities and differences among their mental health needs. For this purpose, qualitative and quantitative data was collected from 35 women from a Midwestern domestic violenceshelter. Hierarchical clustering was applied to quantitative data, and the analysis indicated a three-cluster solution. Data from the qualitative analysis also supported the differentiation of women into three distinct groups, which were interpreted as: (A) ready to change, (B) focused on negative symptoms, and (C) focused on feelings of guilt and self-blame.

Latent profiles of PTSD symptoms in women exposed to intimate partner violence.
Hebenstreit, Claire L., et al.
Journal of Affective Disorders, Vol 180, Jul 15, 2015. pp. 122-128.
Abstract:
Background: Studies have utilized latent class analysis (LCA) and latent profile analysis (LPA) to examine posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptom profiles in a range of populations. Further study is needed to explore symptom profiles among women exposed to intimate partner violence (IPV). The current study examined latent symptom profiles in a sample of IPV-exposed women, and explored trauma-related cognitive appraisals associated with these PTSD symptom presentations. Methods: An LPA was conducted using cross-sectional data from a non-treatment seeking community sample of women recruited following a police-reported incident of IPVby a male perpetrator (N = 229). Multinomial regression analyses determined associations between latent profile membership and trauma-related appraisals. Results: The LPA identified five PTSD symptom profiles: Low Symptom (46% of the sample); Low Symptom with High Hypervigilance (17%); Intermediate Symptom (16%); Intermediate Symptom with High Hypervigilance (11%); and High Symptom (10%). Trauma-related appraisals, including fear, alienation, and self-blame, were the strongest independent predictors of PTSD symptom profile membership. Limitations: The study focused on female victims of IPV by a male partner, and findings may not generalize to other gender configurations (e.g. same-sex couples, male victims, etc.). The LPA is cross-sectional, and the stability of these profiles over time warrants further study. Conclusions: These findings suggest the need for careful consideration of differences among IPV-exposed women within the larger context of PTSD research and clinical intervention. Identifying latent subgroups may provide an empirical basis for practitioners to design and implement PTSD intervention efforts that are tailored to specific symptom profiles.

How do negative emotions relate to dysfunctional posttrauma cognitions? An examination of interpersonal trauma survivors.
Beck, J. Gayle., et al.
Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, Vol 7(1), Jan, 2015. pp. 3-10.
Abstract:
In order to broaden theoretical models of adaptation following trauma and inform current diagnostic practices, the goal of the current study was to examine associations between negative emotions and dysfunctional trauma-related cognitions. In a sample of 109 women who were seeking mental health assistance after intimate partner violence(IPV), anxiety, depression, shame, and guilt were explored in association with negative thoughts about the self, negative thoughts about the world, and self-blame. Higher levels of shame and depression were significantly associated with higher levels of negative thoughts about the self. An increased level of guilt was the only significant finding in the analysis involving negative thoughts about the world. Lower levels of depression and higher levels of shame and guilt were significantly associated with increased levels of self-blame. Anxiety did not emerge as a significant predictor in any of these analyses. Implications for current models of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), revisions to diagnostic practices, and treatment of individuals who have experienced interpersonal trauma are discussed.

Does self-blame moderate psychological adjustment following intimate partner violence?
Reich, Catherine M., et al.
Journal of Interpersonal Violence, Vol 30(9), May, 2015. pp. 1493-1510.
Abstract:
This study explored whether self-blame moderates the relationship between exposure to specific types of abuse and both poor general psychological adjustment (i.e., self-esteem) and specific symptomatology (i.e., posttraumatic stress disorder [PTSD]) among women who had experienced intimate partner violence (IPV). Eighty female IPV survivors were involved in this study. Results indicated that self-blame was negatively associated with self-esteem for physical, psychological, and sexual abuse. Self-blame moderated physical abuse, such that high levels of physical abuse interacted with high levels of self-blame in their association with PTSD. Nonsignificant models were noted for psychological and sexual abuse in association with self-blame and PTSD. These findings support the conceptualization that self-blame is associated with both general and specific psychological outcomes in the aftermath of IPV. Future research examining different forms of blame associated with IPV might further untangle inconsistencies in the self-blame literature.